Food and the role it played in Greek Thought

Food and the act of eating played an important part in the Greek mind. 

Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality, reflecting agricultural hardship. It was founded on the "Mediterranean triad": wheat, olive oil, and wine.

Meals

The Greeks had three to four meals a day. Breakfast (ἀκρατισμός akratismos) consisted of barley bread dipped in wine (ἄκρατος akratos), sometimes complemented by figs or olives. 

They also ate pancakes called τηγανίτης (tēganitēs), ταγηνίτης(tagēnitēs) or ταγηνίας(tagēnias), all words deriving from τάγηνον (tagēnon), "frying pan". The earliest attested references on tagenias are in the works of the 5th century BC poets Cratinus and Magnes.

Tagenites were made with wheat flour, olive oil, honey and curdled milk, and were served for breakfast. 

Another kind of pancake was σταιτίτης (staititēs), from σταίτινος (staitinos), "of flour or dough of spelt", derived from σταῖς (stais), "flour of spelt". Athenaeus in his Deipnosophistae mentions staititas topped with honey, sesame and cheese.

A quick lunch (ἄριστον ariston) was taken around noon or early afternoon. 

Dinner (δεῖπνον deipnon), the most important meal of the day, was generally taken at nightfall. 

An additional light meal (ἑσπέρισμα hesperisma) was sometimes taken in the late afternoon.Ἀριστόδειπνον / aristodeipnon, literally "lunch-dinner", was served in the late afternoon instead of dinner.

Men and women took their meals separately. When the house was too small, the men ate first, the women afterwards. Slaves waited at dinners. Aristotle notes that "the poor, having no slaves, would ask their wives or children to serve food." Respect for the father who was the breadwinner was obvious.

The ancient Greek custom of placing terra cotta miniatures of their furniture in children's graves gives us a good idea of its style and design. The Greeks normally ate while seated on chairs; benches were used for banquets. The tables, high for normal meals and low for banquets, were initially rectangular in shape.

By the 4th century BC, the usual table was round, often with animal-shaped legs (for example lion's paws). Loaves of flat bread could be used as plates, but terra cotta bowls were more common.

Dishes became more refined over time, and by the Roman period plates were sometimes made out of precious metals or glass. Cutlery was not often used at the table: use of the fork was unknown; people ate with their fingers. Knives were used to cut the meat. 

Spoons were used for soups and broths. Pieces of bread (ἀπομαγδαλία apomagdalia) could be used to spoon the food or as napkins to wipe the fingers.

As with modern dinner parties, the host could simply invite friends or family; but two other forms of social dining were well documented in ancient Greece: the entertainment of the all-male symposium, and the obligatory, regimental syssitia.

Symposium

The symposium (Greek: συμπόσιον symposion or symposio, from συμπίνειν sympinein, "to drink together") was a part of a banquet that took place after the meal, when drinking for pleasure was accompanied by music, dancing, recitals, or conversation.

 Literary works that describe or take place at a symposium include two Socratic dialogues, Plato's Symposium and Xenophon's Symposium, as well as a number of Greek poems such as the elegies of Theognis of Megara. Symposia are depicted in Greek and Etruscan art that shows similar scenes.

It consisted of two parts: the first dedicated to food, generally rather simple, and a second part dedicated to drinking. However, wine was consumed with the food, and the beverages were accompanied by snacks (τραγήματα tragēmata) such as chestnuts, beans, toasted wheat, or honey cakes, all intended to absorb alcohol and extend the drinking spree.

The second part was inaugurated with a libation, most often in honor of Dionysus, followed by conversation or table games, such as kottabos. The guests would recline on couches (κλίναι klinai); low tables held the food or game boards. 

Dancers, acrobats, and musicians would entertain the wealthy banqueters. A "king of the banquet" was drawn by lots; he had the task of directing the slaves as to how strong to mix the wine.

With the exception of courtesans, the banquet was strictly reserved for men. It was an essential element of Greek social life. Great feasts could only be afforded by the rich; in most Greek homes, religious feasts or family events were the occasion of more modest banquets. 

The banquet became the setting of a specific genre of literature, giving birth to Plato's Symposium, Xenophon's work of the same name, the Table Talk of Plutarch's Moralia, and the Deipnosophists (Banquet of the Learned) of Athenaeus.

Setting and social occasion

Plato's Symposium, depiction by Anselm Feuerbach

The Greek symposium was a key Hellenic social institution. It was a forum for men of respected families to debate, plot, boast, or simply to revel with others. They were frequently held to celebrate the introduction of young men into aristocratic society. Symposia were also held by aristocrats to celebrate other special occasions, such as victories in athletic and poetic contests. They were a source of pride for them.

Banquet scene from a Temple of Athena (6th century BC relief).

Symposia were usually held in the andrōn (ἀνδρών), the men's quarters of the household. The participants, or "symposiasts", would recline on pillowed couches arrayed against the three walls of the room away from the door. 

Due to space limitations, the couches would number between seven and nine, limiting the total number of participants to somewhere between fourteen and twenty seven (Oswyn Murray gives a figure of between seven and fifteen couches and reckons fourteen to thirty participants a "standard size for a drinking group"). 

If any young men took part, they did not recline but sat up. However, in Macedonian symposia, the focus was not only on drinking but hunting, and young men were allowed to recline only after they had killed their first wild boar.

Food and wine were served. Entertainment was provided, and depending on the occasion could include games, songs, flute-girls or boys, slaves performing various acts, and hired entertainment.

Symposia often were held for specific occasions. The most famous symposium of all, described in Plato's dialogue of that name (and rather differently in Xenophon's) was hosted by the poet Agathon on the occasion of his first victory at the theater contest of the 416 BC Dionysia. According to Plato's account, the celebration was upstaged by the unexpected entrance of the toast of the town, the young Alcibiades, dropping in drunken and nearly naked, having just left another symposium.

The men at the symposium would discuss a multitude of topics—often philosophical, such as love and the differences between genders.

Drinking

A symposium would be overseen by a "symposiarch" who would decide how strong the wine for the evening would be, depending on whether serious discussions or merely sensual indulgence were in the offing. The Greeks and Romans customarily served their wine mixed with water, as the drinking of pure wine was considered a habit of uncivilized peoples.

 However, there were major differences between the Roman and Greek symposia. 

A Roman symposium (convivium) served wine before, with and after food, and women were allowed to join. In a Greek symposium, wine was only drunk after dinner, and women were not allowed to attend. 

A female aulos-player entertains men at a symposium on this Attic red-figure bell-krater, c. 420 BC

The wine was drawn from a krater, a large jar designed to be carried by two men, and served from pitchers (oenochoe). Determined by the Master of Ceremonies, the wine was diluted to a specific strength and was then mixed.

 Slave boys would manage the krater, and transfer the wine into pitchers. They then attended to each man in the symposium with the pitchers and filled their cups with wine. Certain formalities were observed, most important among which were libations, the pouring of a small amount of wine in honor of various deities or the mourned dead.

 In a fragment from his c. 375 BC play Semele or Dionysus, Eubulus has the god of wine Dionysos describe proper and improper drinking:

For sensible men I prepare only three kraters: one for health (which they drink first), the second for love and pleasure, and the third for sleep. After the third one is drained, wise men go home. 

The fourth krater is not mine any more - it belongs to bad behavior; the fifth is for shouting; the sixth is for rudeness and insults; the seventh is for fights; the eighth is for breaking the furniture; the ninth is for depression; the tenth is for madness and unconsciousness.

In keeping with the Greek virtue of moderation, the symposiarch should have prevented festivities from getting out of hand, but Greek literature and art often indicate that the third-krater limit was not observed.

Classicist John Wilkins notes that "in the Odyssey for example, good men are distinguished from bad and Greeks from foreigners partly in terms of how and what they ate. Herodotus identified people partly in terms of food and eating".

Up to the 3rd century BC, the frugality imposed by the physical and climatic conditions of the country was held as virtuous. The Greeks did not ignore the pleasures of eating, but valued simplicity. The rural writer Hesiod, as cited above, spoke of his "flesh of a heifer fed in the woods, that has never calved, and of firstling kids" as being the perfect closing to a day. Nonetheless, Chrysippus is quoted as saying that the best meal was a free one.

Culinary and gastronomical research was rejected as a sign of oriental flabbiness: the inhabitants of the Persian Empire were considered decadent due to their luxurious taste, which manifested itself in their cuisine. 

The Greek authors took pleasure in describing the table of the Achaemenid Great King and his court: Herodotus, Clearchus of Soli, Strabo and Ctesias were unanimous in their descriptions.

In consequence of this cult of frugality, and the diminished regard for cuisine it inspired, the kitchen long remained the domain of women, free or enslaved.

 In the classical period, however, culinary specialists began to enter the written record. Both Aelian and Athenaeus mention the thousand cooks who accompanied Smindyride of Sybaris on his voyage to Athens at the time of Cleisthenes, if only disapprovingly. 

In contrast, Greeks as a whole stressed the austerity of their own diet. Plutarch tells how the king of Pontus, eager to try the Spartan "black gruel", bought a Laconian cook; 'but had no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which the cook observing, told him, "Sir, to make this broth relish, you should have bathed yourself first in the river Eurotas"'. 

According to Polyaenus, on discovering the dining hall of the Persian royal palace, Alexander the Great mocked their taste and blamed it for their defeat. Pausanias, on discovering the dining habits of the Persian commander Mardonius, equally ridiculed the Persians, "who having so much, came to rob the Greeks of their miserable living".

Plato in Gorgias, mentions "Thearion the cook, Mithaecus the author of a treatise on Sicilian cooking, and Sarambos the wine merchant; three eminent connoisseurs of cake, kitchen and wine." Some chefs also wrote treatises on cuisine.

Over time, more and more Greeks presented themselves as gourmets. From the Hellenistic to the Roman period, the Greeks — at least the rich — no longer appeared to be any more austere than others. The cultivated guests of the feast hosted by Athenaeus in the 2nd or 3rd century devoted a large part of their conversation to wine and gastronomy.

They discussed the merits of various wines, vegetables, and meats, mentioning renowned dishes (stuffed cuttlefish, red tuna belly, prawns, lettuce watered with mead) and great cooks such as Soterides, chef to king Nicomedes I of Bithynia (who reigned from the 279 to 250 BC). 

When his master was inland, he pined for anchovies; Soterides simulated them from carefully carved turnips, oiled, salted and sprinkled with poppy seeds.

Bread

Woman kneading bread, c. 500–475 BC, National Archaeological Museum of Athens

Cereals formed the staple diet. The two main grains were wheat (σῖτος sitos) and barley (κριθή krithe).

In ancient Greece, bread was served with accompaniments known as opson ὄψον, sometimes rendered in English as "relish".[30] This was a generic term which referred to anything which accompanied this staple food, whether meat or fish, fruit or vegetable.

Wheat

Wheat grains were softened by soaking, then either reduced into gruel, or ground into flour (ἀλείατα aleiata) and kneaded and formed into loaves (ἄρτος artos) or flatbreads, either plain or mixed with cheese or honey. Leavening was known; the Greeks later used an alkali (νίτρον nitron) and wine yeast as leavening agents. Dough loaves were baked at home in a clay oven (ἰπνός ipnos) set on legs.

Bread wheat, difficult to grow in Mediterranean climates, and the white bread made from it, were associated with the upper classes in the ancient Mediterranean, while the poor ate coarse brown breads made from emmer wheat and barley.

A simpler baking method involved placing lighted coals on the floor and covering the heap with a dome-shaped lid (πνιγεύς pnigeus); when it was hot enough, the coals were swept aside, and dough loaves were placed on the warm floor. The lid wasthen put back in place, and the coals were gathered on the side of the cover. (This method is still traditionally used in Serbia and elsewhere in the Balkans, where it is called crepulja or sač). The stone oven did not appear until the Roman period. Solon, an Athenian lawmaker of the 6th century BC, prescribed that leavened bread be reserved for feast days. By the end of the 5th century BC, leavened bread was sold at the market, though it was expensive.

Barley

Barley was easier to produce but more difficult to make bread from. It provided a nourishing but very heavy bread. Because of this it was often roasted before milling, producing a coarse flour (ἄλφιτα alphita) which was used to make μᾶζα maza, the basic Greek dish. Many recipes for maza are known; it could be served cooked or raw, as a broth, or made into dumplings or flatbreads. Like wheat breads, it could also be augmented with cheese or honey.

In Peace, Aristophanes employs the expression ἐσθίειν κριθὰς μόνας, literally "to eat only barley", with a meaning equivalent to the English "diet of bread and water".

Fruit and vegetables

In ancient Greece, fruit and vegetables were a significant part of the diet, as the ancient Greeks consumed much less meat than is usual today. Legumes would have been important crops, as their ability to replenish exhausted soil was known at least by the time of Xenophon. As one of the first domesticated crops to be introduced to Greece, lentils are commonly found at archaeological sites in the region from the Upper Paleolithic.

Vegetables were eaten as soups, boiled or mashed (ἔτνος etnos), seasoned with olive oil, vinegar, herbs or γάρον gáron, a fish sauce similar to Vietnamese nước mắm. In the comedies of Aristophanes, Heracles was portrayed as a glutton with a fondness for mashed beans. Poor families ate oak acorns (βάλανοι balanoi). Raw or preserved olives were a common appetizer.

In the cities, fresh vegetables were expensive, and therefore, the poorer city dwellers had to make do with dried vegetables. Lentil soup (φακῆ phakē) was the workman's typical dish. Cheese, garlic, and onions were the soldier's traditional fare. In Aristophanes' Peace, the smell of onions typically represents soldiers; the chorus, celebrating the end of war, sings Oh! joy, joy! No more helmet, no more cheese nor onions! Bitter vetch (ὄροβος orobos) was considered a famine food.

Fruits, fresh or dried, and nuts, were eaten as dessert. Important fruits were figs, raisins, and pomegranates. In Athenaeus' Deipnosophistae, he describes a dessert made of figs and broad beans. Dried figs were also eaten as an appetizer or when drinking wine. In the latter case, they were often accompanied by grilled chestnuts, chick peas, and beechnuts.

Fish and meat

Sacrifice; principal source of meat for city dwellers
here a boar; tondo of an Attickylix by the Epidromos Painter,
c. 510–500 BC, Louvre.

The consumption of fish and meat varied in accordance with the wealth and location of the household; in the country, hunting (primarily trapping) allowed for consumption of birds and hares. Peasants also had farmyards to provide them with chickens and geese. Slightly wealthier landowners could raise goats, pigs, or sheep. In the city, meat was expensive except for pork. In Aristophanes' day a piglet cost three drachmas, which was three days' wages for a public servant. Sausages were common both for the poor and the rich. Archaeological excavations at Kavousi Kastro, Lerna, and Kastanas have shown that dogs were sometimes consumed in Bronze Age Greece, in addition to the more commonly-consumed pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats.

In the 8th century BC Hesiod describes the ideal country feast in Works and Days:

“But at that time let me have a shady rock and Bibline wine, a clot of curds and milk of drained goats with the flesh of a heifer fed in the woods, that has never calved, and of firstling kids; then also let me drink bright wine…”

Meat is much less prominent in texts of the 5th century BC onwards than in the earliest poetry, but this may be a matter of genre rather than real evidence of changes in farming and food customs. Fresh meat was most commonly eaten at sacrifices, though sausage was much more common, consumed by people across the economic spectrum.

Spartans primarily ate a soup made from pigs' legs and blood, known as melas zōmos (μέλας ζωμός), which means "black soup". According to Plutarch, it was "so much valued that the elderly men fed only upon that, leaving what flesh there was to the younger". It was famous amongst the Greeks. "Naturally Spartans are the bravest men in the world," joked a Sybarite, "anyone in his senses would rather die ten thousand times than take his share of such a sorry diet". It was made with pork, salt, vinegar and blood. The dish was served with maza, figs and cheese sometimes supplemented with game and fish. The 2nd–3rd century author Aelian claims that Spartan cooks were prohibited from cooking anything other than meat.

In the Greek islands and on the coast, fresh fish and seafood (squid, octopus, and shellfish) were common. They were eaten locally but more often transported inland. Sardines and anchovies were regular fare for the citizens of Athens. They were sometimes sold fresh, but more frequently salted. A stele of the late 3rd century BC from the small Boeotian city of Akraiphia, on Lake Copais, provides us with a list of fish prices. The cheapest was skaren (probably parrotfish) whereas Atlantic bluefin tuna was three times as expensive. Common salt water fish were yellowfin tuna, red mullet, ray, swordfish or sturgeon, a delicacy which was eaten salted. Lake Copais itself was famous in all Greece for its eels, celebrated by the hero of The Acharnians. Other fresh water fish were pike-fish, carp and the less appreciated catfish. In classical Athens, eels, conger-eels, and sea-perch (ὈρΦὸς) were considered to be great delicacies, while sprats were cheap and readily available.

Eggs and dairy products

Greeks bred quails and hens, partly for their eggs. Some authors also praise pheasant eggs and Egyptian Goose eggs, which were presumably rather rare. Eggs were cooked soft- or hard-boiled as hors d'œuvre or dessert. Whites, yolks and whole eggs were also used as ingredients in the preparation of dishes.

Country dwellers drank milk (γάλα gala), but it was seldom used in cooking. Butter (βούτυρον bouturon) was known but seldom used either: 

Greeks saw it as a culinary trait of the Thracians of the northern Aegean coast, whom the Middle Comic poet Anaxandrides dubbed "butter eaters". 

Yet Greeks enjoyed other dairy products. Πυριατή pyriatē and Oxygala (οξύγαλα) were curdled milk products, similar to cottage cheese or perhaps to yogurt. 

Most of all, goat's and ewe's cheese (τυρός tyros) was a staple food. Fresh and hard cheese were sold in different shops; the former cost about two thirds of the latter's price.

Cheese was eaten alone or with honey or vegetables. It was also used as an ingredient in the preparation of many dishes, including fish dishes. The only extant recipe by the Sicilian cook Mithaecus runs: "Tainia: gut, discard the head, rinse and fillet; add cheese and olive oil".

However, the addition of cheese seems to have been a controversial matter; Archestratus warns his readers that Syracusan cooks spoil good fish by adding cheese.

Drink

Attic Rhyton, c. 460–450 BC, National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

The most widespread drink was water. Fetching water was a daily task for women. Though wells were common, spring water was preferred: it was recognized as nutritious because it caused plants and trees to grow, and also as a desirable beverage. Pindar called spring water "as agreeable as honey".

One of the comic poet Antiphanes's characters claimed that he could recognize Attic water by taste alone. Athenaeus states that a number of philosophers had a reputation for drinking nothing but water, a habit combined with a vegetarian diet (cf. below). Milk, usually goats' milk, was not widely consumed, being considered barbaric.

The usual drinking vessel was the skyphos, made out of wood, terra cotta, or metal. Critias[81] also mentions the kothon, a Spartan goblet which had the military advantage of hiding the colour of the water from view and trapping mud in its edge. The ancient Greeks also used a vessel called a kylix (a shallow footed bowl), and for banquets the kantharos (a deep cup with handles) or the rhyton, a drinking horn often moulded into the form of a human or animal head.

Wine

The Greeks are thought to have made red as well as rosé and white wines. Like today, these varied in quality from common table wine to valuable vintages. It was generally considered that the best wines came from Thásos, Lesbos and Chios.

Cretan wine came to prominence later. A secondary wine made from water and pomace (the residue from squeezed grapes), mixed with lees, was made by country people for their own use. The Greeks sometimes sweetened their wine with honey and made medicinal wines by adding thyme, pennyroyal and other herbs. By the first century, if not before, they were familiar with wine flavoured with pine resin (modern retsina). Aelian also mentions a wine mixed with perfume. Cooked wine was known, as well as a sweet wine from Thásos, similar to port wine.

Wine was generally cut with water. The drinking of akraton or "unmixed wine", though known to be practised by northern barbarians, was thought likely to lead to madness and death. Wine was mixed in a krater, from which the slaves would fill the drinker's kylix with an oinochoe (jugs). Wine was also thought to have medicinal powers. Aelian mentions that the wine from Heraia in Arcadia rendered men foolish but women fertile; conversely, Achaean wine was thought to induce abortion.

Outside of these therapeutic uses, Greek society did not approve of women drinking wine. According to Aelian, a Massalian law prohibited this and restricted women to drinking water. Sparta was the only city where women routinely drank wine.

Wine reserved for local use was kept in skins. That destined for sale was poured into πίθοι pithoi, (large terra cotta jugs). From here they were decanted into amphoras sealed with pitch for retail sale. Vintage wines carried stamps from the producers or city magistrates who guaranteed their origin. This is one of the first instances of indicating the geographical or qualitative provenance of a product.

Kykeon

Hecamede preparing kykeon for Nestor, kylix by the Brygos Painter,
ca. 490 BC, Louvre

The Greeks also drank kykeon (κυκεών, from κυκάω kykaō, "to shake, to mix"), which was both a beverage and a meal. It was a barley gruel, to which water and herbs were added. In the Iliad, the beverage also contained grated goat cheese. In the Odyssey, Circe adds honey and a magic potion to it. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, the goddess refuses red wine but accepts a kykeon made of water, flour, and pennyroyal.

Used as a ritual beverage in the Eleusinian Mysteries, kykeon was also a popular beverage, especially in the countryside: Theophrastus, in his Characters, describes a boorish peasant as having drunk much kykeon and inconveniencing the Assemblywith his bad breath. It also had a reputation as a good digestive, and as such, in Peace, Hermes recommends it to the main character who has eaten too much dried fruit.

Cultural beliefs about the role of food

Food played an important part in the Greek mode of thought. Classicist John Wilkins notes that "in the Odyssey for example, good men are distinguished from bad and Greeks from foreigners partly in terms of how and what they ate. Herodotus identified people partly in terms of food and eating".

Up to the 3rd century BC, the frugality imposed by the physical and climatic conditions of the country was held as virtuous. The Greeks did not ignore the pleasures of eating, but valued simplicity. 

The rural writer Hesiod, as cited above, spoke of his "flesh of a heifer fed in the woods, that has never calved, and of firstling kids" as being the perfect closing to a day. Nonetheless, Chrysippus is quoted as saying that the best meal was a free one.

Culinary and gastronomical research was rejected as a sign of oriental flabbiness: the inhabitants of the Persian Empire were considered decadent due to their luxurious taste, which manifested itself in their cuisine. 

The Greek authors took pleasure in describing the table of the Achaemenid Great King and his court: Herodotus, Clearchus of Soli,Strabo and Ctesias were unanimous in their descriptions.

Fresh fish, one of the favorite dishes of the Greeks, platter with red figures,
 c. 350–325 BC, Louvre

In contrast, Greeks as a whole stressed the austerity of their own diet. Plutarch tells how the king of Pontus, eager to try the Spartan "black gruel", bought a Laconian cook; 'but had no sooner tasted it than he found it extremely bad, which the cook observing, told him, "Sir, to make this broth relish, you should have bathed yourself first in the river Eurotas"'.

According to Polyaenus, on discovering the dining hall of the Persian royal palace, Alexander the Great mocked their taste and blamed it for their defeat. Pausanias, on discovering the dining habits of the Persian commander Mardonius, equally ridiculed the Persians, "who having so much, came to rob the Greeks of their miserable living".

In consequence of this cult of frugality, and the diminished regard for cuisine it inspired, the kitchen long remained the domain of women, free or enslaved. In the classical period, however, culinary specialists began to enter the written record. 

Both Aelian and Athenaeus mention the thousand cooks who accompanied Smindyride of Sybaris on his voyage to Athens at the time of Cleisthenes, if only disapprovingly. 

Plato in Gorgias, mentions "Thearion the cook, Mithaecus the author of a treatise on Sicilian cooking, and Sarambos the wine merchant; three eminent connoisseurs of cake, kitchen and wine." Some chefs also wrote treatises on cuisine.

Over time, more and more Greeks presented themselves as gourmets. From the Hellenistic to the Roman period, the Greeks — at least the rich — no longer appeared to be any more austere than others. The cultivated guests of the feast hosted by Athenaeus in the 2nd or 3rd century devoted a large part of their conversation to wine and gastronomy. 

They discussed the merits of various wines, vegetables, and meats, mentioning renowned dishes (stuffed cuttlefish, red tuna belly, prawns, lettuce watered with mead) and great cooks such as Soterides, chef to king Nicomedes I of Bithynia (who reigned from the 279 to 250 BC). When his master was inland, he pined for anchovies; Soterides simulated them from carefully carved turnips, oiled, salted and sprinkled with poppy seeds. 

Suidas (an encyclopaedia from the Byzantine period) mistakenly attributes this exploit to the celebrated Roman gourmet Apicius (1st century BC) — which may be taken as evidence that the Greeks had reached the same level as the Romans.

Vegetarianism

Triptolemus received wheat sheaves from Demeter and blessings from Persephone,
5th century BC relief, National Archaeological Museum of Athens

Orphicism and Pythagoreanism, two common ancient Greek religions, suggested a different way of life, based on a concept of purity and thus purification (κάθαρσις katharsis) — a form of asceticism in the original sense: ἄσκησις askēsis initially signifies a ritual, then a specific way of life. Vegetarianism was a central element of Orphicism and of several variants of Pythagoreanism.

Empedocles (5th century BC) justified vegetarianism by a belief in the transmigration of souls: who could guarantee that an animal about to be slaughtered did not house the soul of a human being? However, it can be observed that Empedocles also included plants in this transmigration, thus the same logic should have applied to eating them. Vegetarianism was also a consequence of a dislike for killing: "For Orpheus taught us rights and to refrain from killing".

The information from Pythagoras (6th century BC) is more difficult to define. The Comedic authors such as Aristophanes and Alexis described Pythagoreans as strictly vegetarian, with some of them living on bread and water alone. Other traditions contented themselves with prohibiting the consumption of certain vegetables, such as the broad bean, or of sacred animals such as the white cock or selected animal parts.

It follows that vegetarianism and the idea of ascetic purity were closely associated, and often accompanied by sexual abstinence. In On the eating of flesh, Plutarch (1st–2nd century) elaborated on the barbarism of blood-spilling; inverting the usual terms of debate, he asked the meat-eater to justify his choice.

The Neoplatonic Porphyrius (3rd century) associates in On Abstinence vegetarianism with the Cretan mystery cults, and gives a census of past vegetarians, starting with the semi-mythical Epimenides. For him, the origin of vegetarianism was Demeter's gift of wheat to Triptolemus so that he could teach agriculture to humanity. His three commandments were: "Honour your parents", "Honour the gods with fruit", and "Spare the animals".

Portokalia me Meli Orange Honey Dessert Recipe

5 mins
Prep: 5 mins,
Cook: 0 mins
Yield: 1 serving

In Greek: πορτοκάλια με μέλι, say: por-toh-KAHL-yah meh MEH-lee

Fresh fruit is a favorite Greek dessert, sweet snack, and a great addition to the breakfast table. It's delicious served alone, but you can dress it up with a drizzle of fabulous Greek honey. Whether you slice the oranges or separate them into pieces, this 1-2-3 recipe (one step, two ingredients, three minutes) adds a lovely touch.

What You'll Need

1 or 2 oranges (or clementines)
2 to 3 drops of Greek thyme honey (or other honey of your choice).
Optional: cinnamon (ground)

How to make Thyme Honey

Supplies

-any size glass jar
-a small pot

Ingredients

-fresh garden thyme leaves and flowers, enough to fill your jar 2/3 full
-raw, unpasteurized local honey (if possible)

Method

1. Fill a glass jar with 2/3 full of thyme leaves and flowers.
2. Add enough honey to the jar to cover the herbs.
3. In double boiler fashion, fill a small pot with water, add your jar of thyme and honey, then gently heat the mixture for 30 minutes. This will help soften the honey in order for mixing and it will also help extract the goodness of the herbs. Note: Do not let the water get any hotter than 110 degrees Fahrenheit or the heat will kill the healing enzymes of the honey.
4. Remove from heat, label, and cap. Place your jar of honey near a window, in a warm and sunny spot. There it should stay for 2 weeks.
5. Store honey in a cool, dark place. It should keep for several months.

How to Make It

Peel the oranges, break into pieces (or slice).
Arrange on a serving dish, and drizzle with honey.
Optionally, add a light sprinkle of ground cinnamon.

Done!

Tosca Cake

Tosca cake is a Scandinavian favorite, thought to be named for Puccini's opera. It's a delicate sponge, crowned with a caramelized almond, praline-like topping. It's luscious enough on its own, but it also makes a great accompaniment for a pile of tiny new summer strawberries.

Makes about 8 servings

Cake Layer

1 1/4 cups all-purpose flour
1 teaspoon baking powder
1/2 teaspoon coarse salt
1 stick butter (8 tablespoons), melted and cooled
1 teaspoon vanilla extract
1/3 cup milk
3 large eggs
3/4 cup sugar

Tosca Topping

1/2 stick butter (4 tablespoons)
2/3 cup sugar
1/4 cup whipping cream
2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
Pinch salt
1 cup sliced/flaked almonds (you can substitute slivered almonds if desired, though I think the thin-sliced almonds make a more delicate topping)
1/4 teaspoon almond extract
1/4 teaspoon vanilla extract

Preheat oven to 350 degrees, and butter and flour a 9-inch springform pan. Line the bottom of the pan with a circle of parchment, and butter that as well.

Sift together the flour, baking powder and salt. Set aside. Mix together the butter, vanilla and milk, and set aside (it should be warm enough that the butter is liquid, but not too hot).

With an electric mixer, beat together the eggs and sugar on a high speed until pale and thick. Add the flour mixture and the milk mixture in turns, mixing after each addition until just barely combined, ending with the dry ingredients. Do not overmix (it's better to err on the side of undermixing to ensure a tender cake). Pour into the springform pan and place in the oven to bake for 20 to 25 minutes, until the top is just barely set.

While the cake is baking, prepare the topping. Combine the butter, sugar, cream, flour and salt in a saucepan. Place over a medium-high flame and stir to combine as the butter melts. When the mixture has combined, add the almonds and allow the mixture to come to a simmer. Let simmer 1 minute, then turn off the heat. Stir in the extracts and set aside.

When the cake has baked for 20 to 25 minutes and is just barely set, gently remove it from the oven. Raise the oven temperature to 400. Gently spread the topping on the cake. Place the cake back in the oven, and bake an additional 15 minutes or so, until the topping is golden brown. Allow to cool before slicing.

Asparagus Stuffed Chicken

Serves: 6

Ingredients:

6 small boneless chicken breast halves
6 stalks asparagus
3 ounces Colby or Colby Jack cheese
1 cup plain bread crumbs
1/2 cup grated parmesan cheese
1/2 cup pignoli nuts -- finely chopped
3 eggs
salt and pepper -- to taste
6 ounces pesto sauce
1 Cup heavy cream

Directions:

Pound chicken breasts to a 1/4 inch thickness and set aside. Snap off tough bottoms of asparagus. Place in boiling water and cover for 1 minute. Drain, rinse with cold water; then pat dry. Cut asparagus from tip down stalk into 3 inch lengths. Cut cheese into sticks 1/2 inch high x 1/2 inch wide by 3 inches long. Set aside. Combine bread crumbs, parmsean and pine nuts in a bowl. In another bowl beat eggs.

Season chicken breasts with salt and pepper. Place a stick of cheese and an asparagus spear next to one long edge of each breast.

Roll breast around ingredients tucking in ends to form a neat package. Secure with a toothpick. Dip each piece in egg and then in breadcrumb mixture. Make a double coating by dipping again into egg then crumbs. Place packages in a baking dish and bake for 20 to 25 minutes at 400F degrees. While the chicken is baking combine pesto and cream in a small saucepan. Bring to a boil and reduce 2 minutes until lightly thickened. Serve pesto cream sauce over chicken.

If you want you can make these ahead of time and freeze. These freeze very well.

Ancient Foods: Pilaf

Pilaf or pilau is a dish in which rice is cooked in a seasoned broth. In some cases, the rice may attain its brown or golden color by first being sauteed lightly in oil before the addition of broth. Cooked onion, other vegetables, as well as a mix of spices, may be added. Depending on the local cuisine, it may also contain meat, fish, vegetables, pasta, and dried fruit.

Believed to have originated in ancient India and spread from there to ancient Iran, pilaf and similar dishes are common to Balkan, Middle Eastern, Eastern Europe, South Caucasian, Central and South Asian, East African, Latin American, and Caribbean cuisines. It is a staple food and a popular dish in Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Israel, Crete, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kurdistan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan, Kenya, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Uganda, Tajikstan, Turkey, Xinjiang, and Uzbekistan.

Etymology

The English spelling is influenced by the Modern Greek pilafi (πιλάφι), which comes from the Turkish pilav, which in turn comes from Persian polow (پلو‎), Hindi pulāo, from Sanskritpulāka (meaning "a ball of rice"), which in turn, is probably of Dravidian origin. A Spanish dish, paella, traditionally a communal meal made from rice and fish, shellfish, rabbit or chicken, cooked in a large pan, has similarities in recipe and methodology, but derives from a Valencian word, out of the Old French word paelle for pan (Latin: patella).

History

The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata from the Indian subcontinent, mentions rice and meat cooked together, and the word "pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancient Sanskrit works, such as Yājñavalkya Smṛti.

Pilaf was known to have been served to Alexander the Great at a royal banquet following his capture of the Sogdian capital of Marakanda (modern Samarkand).

The first known recipe for pilaf is by the tenth-century Persian scholar Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna), who in his books on medical sciences dedicated a whole section to preparing various dishes, including several types of pilaf. In doing so, he described advantages and disadvantages of every item used for preparing the dish. Accordingly, Persians consider Ibn Sina to be the "father" of modern pilaf.

Pilau became standard fare in the Middle East and Transcaucasia over the years with variations and innovations by the Persians, Arabs, Turks, and Armenians. It was introduced to Israel by Bukharan and Persian Jews.

During the period of the Soviet Union, the Central Asian versions of the dish spread throughout all Soviet republics, becoming a part of the common Soviet cuisine.

Local varieties

Armenia

In Armenia there are many varieties of pilaf, most notably Armenian rice pilaf. Vermicelli is first sauteed in butter, then rice is added and sauteed as well. Once golden brown, chicken broth is added and brought to a boil. Once boiling, it is then simmered on low heat for 25 minutes. This recipe can be made with bulgur in place of rice. Another popular recipe is known as Karmir Plav (Armenian: Կարմիր փլավ: literally "red pilaf"). Karmir Plav gets its color from tomatoes. Being part of the Soviet Union, Armenia also picked up a few pilaf recipes from Central Asia such as Uzbek pilaf.

India

Known as pulao, polao, pallao and pulav locally, the rice dish has been an integral part of Indian cuisine since the ancient era. The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata from India, mentions rice and meat cooked together, and the word "pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancient Sanskrit works, such as Yājñavalkya Smṛti. A pulao is a dish consisting of rice and a mixture of either lentils or vegetables, mainly including peas, potatoes, french beans, carrots or meat, mainly chicken, fish, lamb, pork or prawn. It is usually served on special occasions and weddings, though it is not uncommon to eat it for a regular lunch or dinner meal. It is considered very high in food energy and fat. 

A pulao is often complemented with either spiced yogurt or raita. Biryani is another rice dish in the Indian cuisine, similar to pulao, albeit with a different cooking method. The main distinction is that a biryani comprises layers of rice with meat or vegetables and it has more spices, the pulao is not layered and is cooked with light spices.

Iran

Persian culinary terms referring to rice preparation are numerous and have found their way into the neighbouring languages: polo (rice cooked in broth while the grains remain separate, straining the half cooked rice before adding the broth and then "brewing"), chelo (white rice with separate grains), kateh (sticky rice) and tajine (slow cooked rice, vegetables, and meat cooked in a specially designed dish also called a tajine). There are also varieties of different rice dishes with vegetables and herbs which are very popular among Iranians.

There are four primary methods of cooking rice in Iran:

Chelo: rice that is carefully prepared through soaking and parboiling, at which point the water is drained and the rice is steamed. This method results in an exceptionally fluffy rice with the grains separated and not sticky; it also results in a golden rice crust at the bottom of the pot called tahdig (literally "bottom of the pot").

Polo: rice that is cooked exactly the same as chelo, with the exception that after draining the rice, other ingredients are layered with the rice, and they are then steamed together.

Kateh: rice that is boiled until the water is absorbed. This is the traditional dish of Northern Iran.

Damy: cooked almost the same as kateh, except that the heat is reduced just before boiling and a towel is placed between the lid and the pot to prevent steam from escaping. Damy literally means "simmered".

In Persian cuisine, rahkshi (also known as yahni), a soup or stock, is often served over pilaf (pulao).

Central Asia

Central Asian, e.g. Tajik and Uzbek plov (Tajik: палав, Uzbek: palov) or osh differs from other preparations in that rice is not steamed, but instead simmered in a rich stew of meat and vegetables called zirvak, until all the liquid is absorbed into the rice. A limited degree of steaming is commonly achieved by covering the pot. It is usually cooked in a kazan (or deghi) over an open fire. The cooking tradition includes many regional and occasional variations. Commonly, it is prepared with lamb, browned in lamb fat or oil, and then stewed with fried onions, garlic and carrots. Chicken plov is rare but found in traditional recipes originating in Bukhara. Plov is usually spiced with whole black cumin, coriander, barberries, red pepper, marigold, and pepper. Heads of garlic and garbanzo beans are buried into the rice during cooking. Sweet variations with dried apricots, cranberries and raisins are prepared on special occasions.

Although often prepared at home for family and guests by the head of household or the housewife, plov is made on special occasions by the oshpaz (osh master chef), who cooks the national dish over an open flame, sometimes serving up to 1,000 people from a single cauldron on holidays or occasions such as weddings. Oshi nahor, or "morning plov", is served in the early morning (between 6 and 9 am) to large gatherings of guests, typically as part of an ongoing wedding celebration.

The Uzbek-style plov cooking recipes are spread nowadays throughout all post-Soviet countries and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China.

Afghanistan

In Afghan cuisine, Kabuli palaw or qabili palaw (Dari : قابلی پلو ) is made by cooking basmati with mutton, lamb, beef or chicken, and oil. Kabuli Palaw is cooked in large shallow and thick dishes. Fried sliced carrots and raisins are added. Chopped nuts like pistachios, walnuts, or almonds may be added as well. The meat is covered by the rice or buried in the middle of the dish. The Kabuli Palaw rice with carrots and raisins is very popular in Saudi Arabia, where it is known as roz Bukhari (Arabic: رز بخاري), meaning Bukharan rice.

Pakistan

In Pakistan, Pulao (پلاؤ‬) is a popular dish cooked with Basmati rice and meat (chicken or mutton or beef). Pulao is a rice dish, cooked in seasoned broth with rice, meat and spices. A pulao is often complimented with raita. The rice is made in mutton or beef or chicken stock and an array of spices including: coriander seeds, cumin, cardamom, cloves and others. Mutton and beef have, with time, been replaced with chicken due to higher prices of mutton. The Sindhi pulao (Sindhi: سنڌي پُلاءُ‎) in the province of Sindh, prepared with mutton or beef or chicken. It is prepared by Sindhi people of Pakistan in their marriage ceremonies, condolence meetings, and other occasions.

Azerbaijan

Azerbaijani cuisine includes more than 40 different plov recipes. One of the most reputed dishes is plov from saffron-covered rice, served with various herbs and greens, a combination distinctive from Uzbek plovs. Traditional Azerbaijani plov consists of three distinct components, served simultaneously but on separate platters: rice (warm, never hot), gara (fried meat, dried fruits, eggs, or fish prepared as an accompaniment to rice), and aromatic herbs. Rice is not mixed with the other components even when eating plov.

Greece

In the Greek cuisine, piláfi (πιλάφι) is the fluffy and soft, but neither soupy nor sticky, rice that has been boiled in a meat stock or bouillon broth. In Northern Greece, it is considered poor form to prepare piláfi on a stovetop; the pot is properly placed in the oven. Gamopílafo("wedding pilaf") is the prized pilaf served traditionally at weddings and major celebrations in Crete: rice is boiled in lamb or goat broth, then finished with lemon juice. Gamopílafo though it bears the name is not a pilaf but rather a kind of risotto, with creamy and not fluffy texture.

Caribbean

In the Eastern Caribbean and other Caribbean territories there are variations of pelau which include a wide range of ingredients such as pigeon peas, green peas, string beans, corn, carrots, pumpkin, and meat such as beef or chicken, or cured pig tail. The seasoned meat is usually cooked in a stew, with the rice and other vegetables added afterwards. Coconut milk and spices are also key additions in some islands.

Brazil

A significantly modified version of the recipe, often seen as influenced by what is called arroz pilau there, is known in Brazil as arroz de frango desfiado or incorrectly risoto de frango(Portuguese: [aˈʁoʒ dʒi ˈfɾɐ̃gu dʒisfiˈadu], "shredded chicken rice", [ʁiˈzotu], "chicken risotto"). Rice lightly fried (and optionally seasoned), salted and cooked until soft (but neither soupy nor sticky) in either water or chicken stock is added to chicken stock, onions and sometimes cubed bell peppers (cooked in the stock), shredded chicken breast, green peas, tomato sauce, shoyu, and optionally vegetables (e.g. canned sweet corn, cooked carrot cubes, courgette cubes, broccolini flowers, chopped broccoli or broccolini stalks/leaves fried in garlic seasoning) and/or herbs (e.g. mint, like in canja) to form a distantly risotto-like dish – but it is generally fluffy (depending on the texture of the rice being added), as generally, once all ingredients are mixed, it is not left to cook longer than 5 minutes. In the case shredded chicken breast is not added, with the rice being instead served alongside chicken and sauce suprême, it is known as arroz suprême de frango (Portuguese: [ɐˈʁo s(ː)uˈpɾẽm(i) dʒi ˈfɾɐ̃gu], "chicken supreme rice").

Ingredients

1 tablespoon unsalted butter
1 tablespoon vegetable oil
1 clove garlic, minced
1 small onion, finely chopped
4 cremini mushrooms, sliced thin
1 cup pearl barley
1/2 cup wheat berries
1/4 cup millet
1/2 cup wild rice, rinsed
3 cups chicken stock
2 tablespoons chopped fresh herbs (any mixture of parsley, thyme, oregano, chives, etc. per your preference)
Extra virgin olive oil, to taste
Salt, to taste
Pepper, to taste

Directions

Preheat oven to 350 degrees F.

In a large ovenproof pot with a tight­fitting lid, melt butter over low heat. Add oil, garlic, and onion.

Cook until onions are softened and translucent, 5 to 10 minutes. Raise heat to medium high and add mushrooms. Cook until soft, about 5 minutes.

Add grains and stir well, coating them with oil. Cook, stirring often, for about 10 to 15 minutes. Stir in stock and bring to a boil. Cover pot and put in oven.

Bake for 30 minutes.

Remove lid and cook a little longer if grains need to be softer. Fold in chopped herbs.

Drizzle with extra virgin olive oil. Season with salt and pepper, and serve hot.*

A Witch's List of Magickal Foods

The Secrets to Cooking Like a Witch


If you're interested in Kitchen Witchcraft, here is a useful food starter list and their magical properties. These are staple and ordinary foods that you probably already have in your pantry or refrigerator, but maybe you never realized that they contained magickal properties before.

Keep in mind that food is magick in and of itself. It doesn't need anything in order to carry magickal properties. Why is this? Because it comes directly from Mother Earth. Every form of life on this planet is a miracle, and our food is nothing short of a miracle. Vegetables, herbs, and fruits are all plants and therefore imbued with Mother Earth's love and nourishment. Meats and dairy come from Mother Earth's amazing creatures and should be shown respect and gratitude.

Making a magickal meal is as easy as praying over your food while preparing it and also being thankful for the sustenance given. Keep in mind too, that when preparing your food, whatever energy is surrounding you will also affect the food. So if you're in a good mood, dancing and singing while preparing, the food will take on some of this energy. Likewise if you're in a bad mood or nonchalant about the food you are preparing, the food will absorb some of this energy. Mindfulness is all a part of cooking like a witch. Be mindful of your ingredients, their history, their properties and how they can be nurturing to your body.

Magickal Fruits, Breads, and Sweets

Apple: known as the Wiccan food that is the sacred fruit to the Goddess. The sacred fruit to the Isle of Avalon. If you cut an apple horizontally through it's center, you will see the 5 pointed star formed by its seeds. A wiccan food that is used in love, healing, garden magic, and immortality.

Bagel: a round shaped bread with a hole that is ruled by Adonis. A food that is perfect for breakfast and is of various flavors and types. Eat bagels to create illusions. Warning: never ever eat pork products on a bagel, it brings bad luck! Sesame bagels: prosperity. Poppy bagels: eaten before bed to increase dream activity (don't eat before having to take a drug test as the poppy seeds are known to induce a positive for opiates). Salt bagels: gets rid of inconsistencies. Cinnamon bagels: makes flattery come easy.

Banana: an everyday food that is a fruit and ruled by Mars. Prevents harm and accidents while traveling cross-country or by air. To increase sexual stamina - dry and crush the banana into a powder and than rub it on your body. It has powerful lust properties because of its obvious shape.

Chocolate: can be used as flavoring or as a dessert itself; can be drank as a beverage (hot cocoa/chocolate). Hot chocolate was invented by the Mesoamerican natives, the Aztecs and Mayans were known to consume it often and believed it increased power and virility in their warriors. It was a sacred food to various ancient peoples. Chocolate is a power drug and it holds properties of love. Dark chocolate is associated with romance and intimacy. Milk chocolate is associated with nurturing and friendship. A staple for witches in the kitchen, especially for those trying to induce love or aspects of love.

Ketchup: even condiments have magickal properties! Ketchup is ruled by Venus, as it is made of tomatoes which are also ruled by Venus. When drawn in the shape of a pentagram is used for summoning or dismissing energy. When spreading on other foods, can be used in visualizing relationships. Continue to visualize or call out person's name while consuming ketchup. Ketchup is associated with love, because tomatoes were once thought to be a powerful aphrodisiac.

Oranges: this fruit is well known all over the world and dates back to prehistory. Can be used in love, joy, and inspiration magic. Placed in stockings on Christmas as sympathetic magic to encourage the return of the sun. Directly associated to the sun and solar magick. Eat to lift your spirits. Dry and grind into a powder to use in love and abundance spells.

Pasta: is ruled by Mercury. Spiral pasta: enhances creativity. Spaghetti/linguini: protection and improving communications. Corn pasta: financial creativity. Rice pasta: love.

Pizza: a delicious and recreational food that is ruled by the Sun. Eat pizza when things are difficult and you need a lucky break. Or when you get the craving.

Rum: is an alcohol that is ruled by Ellegua and Chango. Rum channels spirits of the gods and is given as an offering to attract the gods' favor. Use in baking a rum cake or mix with coke for a fun Friday night!

Sugar: is ruled by the Orishas and by the goddess of love - Venus. When powdered, sprinkle sugar on pink or red love candles to draw someone's attention. Can be used in spell jars, bags, and more.

Magickal Herbs


Basil: a popular Wiccan food for Wicca in the kitchen. A very useful and fragrant herb that can be used fresh or dried in cooking. This is a lust herb and the aroma calls forth sexual energy.

Bay: bay leaves have been used for centuries in the Mediterranean. They are believed to enhance psychic powers when burned. Add them to various dishes of Italian, Cuban, and Greek ethnicity to connect to the gods.

Chili Powder: chili powder is made from ground, dried chilis. It has been used in hoodoo and other forms of folk magic for centuries. Often it is used to in spells to "send someone away" or to shut someone up. It has a powerful kick and should be used wisely in magick and it is spicy and should be used sparingly in food (unless you like spicy foods then more power to you!)

Cilantro/Coriander: cilantro is the leaf and coriander is the seed of this tasty herb. Ruled by Mars and used in love and lust magick. If the seeds are worn will help with migraine headaches. Used in flavoring foods, great in salsa and chutney. Used in love and healing magick.

Cinnamon: a multi-purpose powdered root used in desserts and dishes. Its magical properties include abundance/money, protection, and love.

Cumin: an ancient herb used in the Middle East and Mediterranean to flavor stews and meat dishes. Blended into drinks to promote lust. Used in foods to promote love and protection. Ruled by Mars.

Oregano: used in Italian food to flavor meat and tomato dishes. Ruled by Venus. Can be used in love, happiness, luck, and protection magick. Also said to enhance psychic abilities.

Peppermint: a sweet-tasting, invigorating herb used in desserts and also drank as a tea. Carry dried peppermint leaves in your wallet to bring in more money. Said to help with stomachaches or sour stomachs. When grown in the garden is good luck.

Rosemary: an herb used to enhance intuition and psychic abilities. When taken as a supplement is said to improve memory and cognition.

Salt: while technically not an herb, salt is used to flavor many dishes both culinary and baking. It has a purifying and cleansing effect and has been used for centuries to absorb negative energies and protect oneself and house from evil. There are different kinds of salt, and it is best to stay away from iodized "table" salt. Sea salt and Himalayan pink salt are best for the body. Himalayan pink salt helps to decalcify one's pineal gland.

Thyme: an herb long associated with the fae or fairies. Ruled by Venus. Used to purify, bring pleasant dreams, worn or burned for good health, can be used in food to attract fortune, love, courage, and psychic skill.


Magickal Veggies


Carrot: root plant ruled by Mars. Because of its shape is associated with lust and fertility. When eaten by women encourages pregnancy. The flowers of the plant are known as Queen Anne's Lace. Come in various colors - white, orange, and even purple.

Lettuce: associated with the element of water, as it is made up mostly of water. Ruled by the moon and is eaten to prevent sea-sickness. Can be used in protection spells, particularly helpful if grown in the garden to protect one's home. Rubbed on face/forehead to help fall asleep. Also used in divination and chastity magick. Very healthy to eat as high in fiber, vitamins, and water content.

Onion: a masculine root plant used in various forms of magick. When cut open and left in a room will absorb sickness. Grow it in the garden to protect one's home against evil spirits. Used also in money and lust magick and will produce prophetic dreams if placed under the pillow. The Holy Trinity of vegetables to be used in many culinary dishes is carrot, celery, and onion sauteed in a butter base (shhh, don't tell anyone my secret to amazing stuffing!)

Potato: staple food in Ireland dating back centuries. Once thought to be poisonous as a part of the nightshade family, now a very common eaten food all over the world. Ruled by the moon. When eaten baked or fried can help calm an upset stomach (my own personal remedy). Used in healing magick.

Tomato: technically not a vegetable, most people consider it as such. Was thought to be the fruit of love in the Mediterranean region. Is considered a powerful aphrodisiac and is used in many Italian, Greek, and Mexican dishes.

Zucchini: a veggie (some say fruit) that is ruled by Jupiter. Whole raw zucchinis are used in sex magick. To stop a man from cheating, carve his name in the zucchini and freeze it. Eat zucchini cooked for protection and prosperity.