People, Goods and Gods: deities

Curse tablets from Britain invoke gods Roman and Celtic as their agents. Mercury is most popular, but other Roman deities include Mars (Marlborough Down), Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Nemesis (Caerleon) and Neptune (Hamble). Of local deities Sulis was addressed at Bath, Nodens at Lydney (Lydney) and ‘Niskus’ (whose name may be related to the archaic English term for water spirit, ‘nixie’), perhaps the river god of the Hamble. Local gods like provincial Romans had learned to read Latin.

Given the association between curse tablets and death (see Creating the curse - plumbing the depths), Mercury’s prominence in curse tablets may relate to his role as the guide who led the dead to the underworld. However Mercury is also the most popular of gods in Rome’s north-western provinces. In any case, when the gods were moved north they did not take all their powers or attributes with them and their identities were often reconfigured by a pairing with local gods, in a process commonly referred to as interpretatio. The most famous case of ‘double-naming’ from Britain is the matching of Sulis, goddess of the spring at Bath, with Minerva, Roman goddess of wisdom, addressed most often in curses as Sulis only, sometimes as Sulis Minerva. To judge from the individuals writing curses and recorded as dedicants on altars and buildings in the Bath temple complex, this identification of the two deities was acceptable to both provincials and to Roman outsiders. At Uley too a local god was identified with Mercury in name and iconography, although an appeal to the god also as Mars and Silvanus in one curse tablet suggests an ambiguous identity (Uley 2). Nodens at Lydney and Niskus in the Hamble tablet were also paired with Roman gods, respectively Mars and Mercury.

Among the few tablets from Britain so far found in graves (see Creating the curse - plumbing the depths), none appeal to the untimely dead or to the gods of the underworld (dii inferi) to expedite the wishes of the curse tablets, unlike curses in other parts of the Roman world. Demonic or magical powers mentioned in curses from other provinces have so far made no appearance in curse from Britain, although some are mentioned in amulets (See People, goods and gods - the workings of magic).

People, Goods and Gods: the workings of magic

The working of the curse depended in part on the correct procedure for making (see Creating the curse - materials and manufacture) and depositing the tablet (see Creating the curse - nailing and folding). It depended too on the use of appropriate formulae (see Creating the curse - Writing the curse), often repeated or reworked for additional power. Curse texts also sometimes drew on a ‘magical vocabulary’. This includes voces magicae, i.e. words without obvious meaning, charakteres i.e. symbols resembling letters, series of repeated vowels, the writing of the alphabet and names of deities and terms for divine attributes from the religions of the eastern Mediterranean. This ‘magical gibberish’ perhaps only served to lend the text a mysterious or arcane aura, but it was perhaps considered too that the gods and spirits understood this language.

Behind the magic of curses appears to lie the principle of ‘sympathy’. On this principle the characteristics of the tablet and the treatment to which it was subjected are also assumed to have been extended to the victims of the curse. The sympathetic connection could be established by identifying the victim (see Creating the curse - Writing the curse). It could be strengthened by associating the tablet with material linked to the victim, ‘stuff’ (ousia) such as hair or clothes (see Creating the curse - nailing and folding). The characteristics of lead (see Creating the curse - materials and manufacture), dull and blotchy, heavy and cold would serve to fatigue the victim. The reversal of letters, words and lines (see Curses and cursive - scripts) would confuse and disorientate, as would folding or rolling the text. Piercing (see Creating the curse - nailing and folding) of the tablet would assist in ‘fixing’ the victim. The cold and wet places (see see Creating the curse ­ plumbing the depths) in which tablets were frequently deposited would benumb them. Deposition in springs, graves or cellars would drag them downward towards the deities of the underworld. Together these different facets may have been thought to ‘fix’ or ‘bind’ the victim, but the degree of literal belief in the power of sympathy is unclear. Instead perhaps the curse presented the gods or spirits with an ‘analogy’ for the way in which they should put it into effect.

The practice of ‘magic’ and witchcraft was unacceptable in the Roman world (see Cursing in Greece and Rome), but it is not straightforward to distinguish ‘magic’ from ‘respectable’ religious practice. In Britain for example the practice of cursing also mostly took place alongside other ‘mainstream’ religious ritual in the province’s temples (see Creating the curse - plumbing the depths), rather than in polluted and dangerous places like cemeteries, the traditional haunts of the witch. In studying curse tablets we have an unusual opportunity to study the complexity of ancient magic and the difficulty of establishing clear-cut categories of magic and religion in a world in which there is no religious orthodoxy, populated by a myriad deities and cults.

Curses Recovered: finding and conserving

Although the largest groups of curse tablets from Britain (Bath and Uley) have been found during archaeological excavations, most of the individual or small groups of finds have been made by metal-detectorists. Many detectorists have reported the findspot and have generously made tablets available for study. However some tablets that have come to light through the antiquities market (see No Provenance A and No Provenance B)lack any kind of contextual information. Even basic information on the findspot is useful both for interpreting the tablet itself and for enhancing the information that the tablet can provide. The discovery of a tablet may also give a clue to the existence of a temple (see Creating the curse - plumbing the depths). From finds associated with a tablet we might be able to date it more closely, given that the script can only give a very broad dating (see Curses and cursive - scripts), or perhaps reconstruct some of the rituals that took place alongside the preparation of curses.

Time has not been kind to curses. The surface of the lead has often oxidised, corroded and fissured. Usually the ends of the folded sheet and the outer surfaces are worst affected, but the poor condition of the main written surfaces can often make the curse illegible. The tablets are difficult to unfold or unroll without causing irreversible damage to the brittle, corroded metal. As the corrosion products are toxic and can be inhaled or absorbed through the skin, curse tablets retain a noxious power. Without conservation and storage in an appropriate, stable environment, the condition of tablets is also likely to deteriorate further. The tablets from Lydney and Caerleon, found respectively in the early 19th and 20th centuries, are both now unreadable, corroded by the gases given off in the oaklined drawers in which they have been kept.

Roman Festivals through the Year

Ianuarius

• 1 (Kalends): From 153 BC onward, consuls entered office on this date, accompanied by vota publica (public vows for the wellbeing of the republic and later of the emperor) and the taking of auspices. Festivals were also held for the imported cult of Aesculapius and for the obscure god Vediovis.
• 3-5: most common dates for Compitalia, a moveable feast (feriae conceptivae)
• 5 (Nones): Dies natalis (founding day) of the shrine of Vica Pota on the Velian Hill
• 9: Agonalia in honor of Janus, after whom the month January is named; first of at least four festivals named Agonalia throughout the year
• 11 and 15: Carmentalia, with Juturna celebrated also on the 11th
• 13 (Ides)
• 24–26: most common dates for the Sementivae, a feriae conceptivae of sowing, perhaps also known as the Paganalia as celebrated by the pagi
• 27: Dies natalis of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, or perhaps marking its rededication (see also July 15); Ludi Castores ("Games of the Castors") celebrated at Ostia during the Imperial period

Februarius

In the archaic Roman calendar, February was the last month of the year. The name derives from februa, "the means of purification, expiatory offerings." It marked a turn of season, with February 5 the official first day of spring bringing the renewal of agricultural activities after winter.

• 1 (Kalends): Dies natalis for the Temple of Juno Sospita, Mother and Queen; sacra at the Grove of Alernus, near the Tiber at the foot of the Palatine Hill
• 5: Dies natalis for the Temple of Concordia on the Capitoline Hill
• 13 (Ides): minor festival of Faunus on the Tiber Island
• 13–22: Parentalia, a commemoration of ancestors and the dead among families 
• 13: Parentatio, with appeasement of the Manes beginning at the 6th hour and ceremonies performed by the chief Vestal; temples were closed, no fires burned on altars, marriages were forbidden, magistrates took off their insignia, until the 21st 
• 15: Lupercalia
• 17: last day of the feriae conceptivae Fornacalia, the Oven Festival; Quirinalia, in honour of Quirinus
• 21: Feralia, the only public observation of the Parentalia, marked F (dies festus) in some calendars and FP (a designation of uncertain meaning) in others, with dark rites aimed at the gods below (di inferi) 
• 22: Caristia (or Cara Cognatio, "Dear Kindred"), a family pot luck in a spirit of love and forgiveness 
• 23: Terminalia, in honour of Terminus
• 24: Regifugium
• 27: Equirria, first of two horse-racing festivals to Mars

Martius

In the old Roman calendar (until perhaps as late as 153 BC), the mensis Martius ("Mars' Month") was the first month of the year. It is one of the few months to be named for a god, Mars, whose festivals dominate the month.

• 1 (Kalends): the original New Year's Day when the sacred fire of Rome was renewed; the dancing armed priesthood of the Salii celebrated the Feriae Marti (holiday for Mars), which was also the dies natalis ("birthday") of Mars; also the Matronalia, in honor of Juno Lucina, Mars' mother 
• 7: a second festival for Vediovis 
• 9: a dies religiosus when the Salii carried the sacred shields (ancilia) around the city again 
• 14: the second Equirria, a Feriae Marti also called the Mamuralia or sacrum Mamurio 
• 15 (Ides): Feriae Iovi, sacred to Jove, and also the feast of the year goddess Anna Perenna
• 16–17: the procession of the Argei
• 17: Liberalia, in honour of Liber; also an Agonalia for Mars 
• 19: Quinquatrus, later expanded into a five-day holiday as Quinquatria, a Feriae Marti, but also a feast day for Minerva, possibly because her temple on the Aventine Hill was dedicated on this day 
• 23: Tubilustrium, purification of the trumpets 
• 24: a day marked QRFC, when the Comitia Calata met to sanction wills 
• 31: anniversary of the Temple of Luna on the Aventine 

Aprilis

A major feriae conceptivae in April was the Latin Festival.

• 1 (Kalends): Veneralia in honour of Venus
• 4–10: Ludi Megalenses or Megalesia, in honor of the Magna Mater or Cybele, whose temple was dedicated April 10, 191 BC 
• 5: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Publica 
• 12–19: Cerialia or Ludi Cereri, festival and games for Ceres, established by 202 BC 
• 13 (Ides): anniversary of the Temple of Jupiter Victor 
• 15: Fordicidia, offering of a pregnant cow to Tellus ("Earth") 
• 21: Parilia, rustic festival in honour of Pales, and the dies natalis of Rome
• 23: the first of two wine festivals (Vinalia), the Vinalia Priora for the previous year's wine, held originally for Jupiter and later Venus 
• 25: Robigalia, an agricultural festival involving dog sacrifice 
• 27 (28 in the Julian calendar) to May 1: Ludi Florales in honour of Flora, extended to May 3 under the Empire

Maius

The feriae conceptivae of this month was the Ambarvalia.

• 1 (Kalends): Games of Flora continue; sacrifice to Maia; anniversary of the Temple of Bona Dea on the Aventine; rites for the Lares Praestites, tutelaries of the city of Rome 
• 3: in the Imperial period, a last celebration for Flora, or the anniversary of one of her temples 
• 9, 11, 13: Lemuria, a festival of the dead with both public and household rites, possibly with a sacrifice to Mania on the 11th 
• 14: anniversary of the Temple of Mars Invictus (Mars the Unconquered); a second procession of the Argei
• 15 (Ides): Mercuralia, in honor of Mercury; Feriae of Jove 
• 21: one of four Agonalia, probably a third festival for Vediovis 
• 23: a second Tubilustrium; Feriae for Volcanus (Vulcan)
• 24: QRCF, following Tubilustrium as in March 
• 25: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia

Iunius
Scullard places the Taurian Games on June 25–26, but other scholars doubt these ludi had a fixed date or recurred on a regular basis.

• 1 (Kalends): anniversaries of the Temple of Juno Moneta; of the Temple of Mars on the clivus (slope, street) outside the Porta Capena; and possibly of the Temple of the Tempestates (storm goddesses); also a festival of the complex goddess Cardea or Carna
• 3: anniversary of the Temple of Bellona
• 4: anniversary of the restoration of the Temple of Hercules Custos
• 5: anniversary of the Temple of Dius Fidius
• 7: Ludi Piscatorii, "Fishermen's Games" 
• 7–15: Vestalia, in honour of Vesta; June 9 was a dies religiosus to her 
• 8: anniversary of the Temple of Mens
• 11: Matralia in honour of Mater Matuta; also the anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna in the Forum Boarium
• 13 (Ides): Feriae of Jove 
• 13–15: Quinquatrus minusculae, the lesser Quinquatrus celebrated by tibicines, flute-players in their role as accompanists to religious ceremonies 
• 19: a commemoration involving the Temple of Minerva on the Aventine, which had its anniversary March 19 
• 20: anniversary of the Temple of Summanus
• 24: festival of Fors Fortuna, which "seems to have been a rowdy affair"
• 27: poorly attested observance in honour of the Lares; anniversary of the Temple of Jupiter Stator 
• 29: anniversary of the Temple of Hercules Musarum, Hercules of the Muses

Iulius (Quinctilis)

Until renamed for Julius Caesar, this month was called Quinctilis or Quintilis, originally the fifth month (quint-) when the year began in March. From this point in the calendar forward, the months had numerical designations.

• 1 (Kalends): a scarcely attested anniversary of a temple to Juno Felicitas 
• 5: Poplifugia
• 6–13: Ludi Apollinares, games in honour of Apollo, first held in 212 BC as a one-day event (July 13) and established as annual in 208 BC. 
• 6: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Muliebris 
• 7 (Nones): Nonae Caprotinae; Ancillarum Feriae (Festival of the Serving Women); sacrifice to Consus by unspecified public priests (sacerdotes publici); also a minor festival to the two Pales
• 8: Vitulatio
• 14–19: a series of markets or fairs (mercatus) following the Ludi Apollinares; not religious holidays 
• 15 (Ides): Transvectio equitum, a procession of cavalry 
• 17: anniversary of the Temple of Honos and Virtus; sacrifice to Victory
• 18: a dies ater ("black day," meaning a day of ill omen) marking the defeat of the Romans by the Gauls at the Battle of the Allia in 390 BC, leading to the sack of Rome by the Gauls 
• 19, 21: Lucaria
• 20–30: Ludi Victoriae Caesaris, "Games of the Victorious Caesar", held annually from 45 BC
• 22: anniversary of the Temple of Concordia at the foot of the Capitol 
• 23: Neptunalia held in honour of Neptune
• 25: Furrinalia, feriae publicae in honour of Furrina
• 30: anniversary of the Temple of the Fortune of This Day (Fortunae Huiusque Diei)

Augustus (Sextilis)

• 1 (Kalends): anniversary of the Temple of Spes (Hope) in the Forum Holitorium, with commemorations also for the "two Victories" on the Palatine 
• 3: Supplicia canum ("punishment of the dogs") an unusual dog sacrifice and procession at the temples of Iuventas ("Youth") and Summanus, connected to the Gallic siege 
• 5: public sacrifice (sacrificium publicum) at the Temple of Salus on the Quirinal 
• 9: public sacrifice to Sol Indiges
• 12: sacrifice of a heifer to Hercules Invictus, with a libation from the skyphos of Hercules 
• 13 (Ides): festival of Diana on the Aventine (Nemoralia), with slaves given the day off to attend; other deities honored at their temples include Vortumnus, Fortuna Equestris, Hercules Victor (or Invictus at the Porta Trigemina), Castor and Pollux, the Camenae, and Flora 
• 17: Portunalia in honour of Portunus; anniversary of the Temple of Janus 
• 19: Vinalia Rustica, originally in honour of Jupiter, but later Venus
• 21: Consualia, with a sacrifice on the Aventine 
• 23: Vulcanalia or Feriae Volcano in honour of Vulcan, along with sacrifices to Maia, the Nymphs in campo ("in the field", perhaps the Campus Martius), Ops Opifera, and a Hora 
• 24: sacrifices to Luna on the Graecostasis; and the first of three days when the mysterious ritual pit called the mundus was opened 
• 25: Opiconsivia or Feriae Opi in honour of Ops Consivae at the Regia
• 27: Volturnalia, when the Flamen Volturnalis made a sacrifice to Volturnus
• 28: Games at the Circus Maximus (circenses) for Sol and Luna

September

• 1 (Kalends): ceremonies for Jupiter Tonans ("the Thunderer") on the Capitolium, and Juno Regina on the Aventine 
• 5: anniversary of one of the temples to Jupiter Stator 
• 5–19, Ludi Romani or Ludi Magni, "the oldest and most famous" of the ludi
• 13 (Ides): anniversary of the Temple to Jupiter Optimus Maximus; an Epulum Iovis; an epulum to the Capitoline Triad
• 14: Equorum probatio ("Approval of the Horses"), a cavalry parade of the Imperial period 
• 20–23: days set aside for markets and fairs (mercatus) immediately following the Ludi Romani 
• 23: anniversary of the rededication of the Temple of Apollo in the Campus Martius; Latona was also honored 
• 26: anniversary of the Temple of Venus Genetrix vowed by Julius Caesar

October

• 1 (Kalends): ceremonies for Fides and the Tigillum Sororium
• 3–12: Ludi Augustales, established 14 AD after the death of Augustus, based on the Augustalia
• 4: Ieiunium Cereris, a day of fasting in honour of Ceres, instituted in 191 BC as a quinquennial observance, made annual by Augustus
• 5: second of the three days when the mundus was opened 
• 6: dies ater ("black day") to mark the anniversary of the battle of Arausio (105 BC) 
• 7 (Nones): rites for Jupiter Fulgur (Jupiter of daytime lightning) and Juno Curitis 
• 9: rites at shrines for the Genius Publicus, Fausta Felicitas, and Venus Victrix on the Capitolium 
• 10: ceremonies to mark a rededication of the Temple of Juno Moneta 
• 11: Meditrinalia
• 12: Augustalia, celebrated from 14 AD in honour of the divinized Augustus, established in 19 BC with a new altar and sacrifice to Fortuna Redux
• 13: Fontinalia in honour of Fons
• 14: ceremonies to mark a restoration of the Temple of the Penates Dei on the Velian Hill
• 15 (Ides): October Horse sacrifice to Mars in the Campus Martius; also Feriae of Jupiter 
• 16: Lupinalia, the Festival of Wolves 
• 19: Armilustrium, a dies religiosus in honour of Mars 
• 26 to November 1: Ludi Victoriae Sullanae, "Victory Games of Sulla", established as an annual event in 81 BC

November

• 1 (Kalends): Ludi circenses to close the Sullan Victory Games 
• 4–17: Plebeian Games
• 8: third of the three days when the mundus ritual pit was opened 
• 13 (Ides): Epulum Jovis; also ceremonies for Feronia and Fortuna Primigeniae 
• 14: a second Equorum probatio (cavalry parade), as on July 15 
• 18–20: markets and fairs (mercatus) 

December

• 1 (Kalends): ceremonies at temples for Neptune and for Pietas
• 3: Bona Dea rites for women only 
• 5 (Nones): a country festival for Faunus held by the pagi
• 8: festival for Tiberinus Pater and Gaia 
• 11: Agonalia for Indiges; also the (probably unrelated) Septimontium
• 12: ceremonies at the Temple of Consus on the Aventine 
• 13 (Ides): dies natalis of the Temple of Tellus, and associated lectisternium for Ceres 
• 15: Consualia or Feriae for Consus, the second of the year 
• 17–23: Saturnalia in honour of Saturn, with the public ritual on the 17th 
• 18 Eponalia in honor of Epona
• 19: Opalia in honor of Ops
• 21: Divalia in honor of Angerona; Hercules and Ceres also received a sacrifice 
• 22: anniversary of the Temple of the Lares Permarini in the Porticus Minucia
• 23: Larentalia; commemorations for the temples of Diana and Juno Regina in the Circus Flaminius, and for the Tempestates; Sigillaria, the last day of the Saturnalia, devoted to gift-giving 
• 25: Dies Natalis Solis Invicti ("Birthday of the Unconquered Sun"); Brumalia (both Imperial)

Is Jesus Occult?

A number of parallels have been drawn between the Christian views of Jesus and other religious or mythical domains. However, Eddy and Boyd state that there is no evidence of a historical influence by the pagan myths such as dying and rising gods on the authors of the New Testament. Paula Fredriksen states that no serious scholarly work places Jesus outside the backdrop of 1st century Palestinian Judaism, which is not the same as saying Christianity lacks Pagan influence.

Scholars have debated a number of broad issues related to the parallels drawn between Jesus and other myths, e.g. the very existence of the category dying-and-rising god was debated throughout the 20th century, some modern scholars questioning the soundness of the category. At the end of the 20th century the overall scholarly consensus had emerged against the soundness of the reasoning used to suggest the category. Tryggve Mettinger (who supports the category) states that there is a scholarly consensus that the category is inappropriate from a historical perspective. Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph have stated the reasoning used for the construction of the category has been defective.

Scholars such as Samuel Sandmel, professor of Bible and Hellenistic Literature at Hebrew Union College, view conclusions drawn from the simple observations of similarity as less than valid. Sandmel called the extravagance in hunting for similarities "parallelomania" – a phenomenon where scholars first notice a supposed similarity and then "proceeds to describe source and derivation as if implying a literary connection flowing in an inevitable or predetermined direction" thus exaggerating the importance of trifling resemblances.

Greco-Roman mysteries

Parallels have been drawn between Greek myths and the life of Jesus. An early example was Friedrich Hölderlin, who in his Brot und Wein (1800–1801) suggested similarities between the Greek god Dionysus and Jesus.

Modern scholars such as Martin Hengel, Barry Powell, and Peter Wick, among others, argue that Dionysian religion and Christianity have notable parallels. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ; although, Wick argues that the use of wine symbolism in the Gospel of John, including the story of the Marriage at Cana at which Jesus turns water into wine, was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.

Additionally, some scholars of comparative mythology argue that both Dionysus and Jesus represent the "dying-and-returning god" mythological archetype. Other parallels, such as the celebration by a ritual meal of bread and wine, have also been suggested and Powell, in particular, argues that precursors to the Christian notion of transubstantiation can be found in Dionysian religion, which incorporated theophagic rituals. Another parallel has been drawn to how in the Bacchae Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity and is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate.

E. Kessler has argued that the Dionysian cult developed into strict monotheism by the 4th century CE; and together with Mithraism and other sects the cult formed an instance of "pagan monotheism" in direct competition with Early Christianity during Late Antiquity.

Mithras

The worship of Mithras was widespread in much of the Roman Empire from the mid-2nd century CE. The Mithra cult in the Roman Empire was a syncretism of different religious motifs, centered on the god Mithras who emerges from a rock. Its closest similarities to Christianity are the story of the slaying of the bull by Mithras; a bull is captured and killed by Mithras when he plunges a knife into it and from the dead bull grain and plants are produced, that symbolize life. Mithras was a solar deity, closely associated with the Roman Sol Invictus.

Stanley Porter argues that Mithraism took hold within the Roman Empire after its expansion and only reached Asia Minor via Roman soldiers in the latter part of the first century, after the basic elements of the gospels were in place, and hence could not have influenced their essential elements.

Early Christian authors noted similarities between Mithraic practices and Christian rituals, but took an extremely negative view of Mithraism: they interpreted Mithraic rituals as evil copies of Christian ones. In the second century, Justin Martyr contrasted Mithraic initiation communion with the Eucharist:

Wherefore also the evil demons in mimicry have handed down that the same thing should be done in the Mysteries of Mithras. For that bread and a cup of water are in these mysteries set before the initiate with certain speeches you either know or can learn.

Tertullian then wrote that as a prelude to the Mithraic initiation ceremony, the initiate was given a ritual bath and at the end of the ceremony, received a mark on the forehead. He described these rites as a diabolical counterfeit of the baptism and chrismation of Christians.

Ancient Egypt

Early in the 20th century, Gerald Massey argued that there are similarities between the Egyptian god Horus and Jesus. Following those ideas, in the 1940s Alvin Boyd Kuhn suggested that not only Christianity, but Judaism was based on Egyptian concepts, and more recently Tom Harpur (a former Anglican priest who explained in his book The Pagan Christ that he believes in a spiritual Christ, but doubts that a historical Jesus existed) has expressed similar views. Harpur acknowledges Massey and Kuhn as his intellectual predecessors and theologian Stanley E. Porter states that most of Harpur's work is directly based on quoting Massey and Kuhn.

Porter has pointed out that Massey and Kuhn's analogies include a number of errors, e.g. Massey stated that December 25 as the date of birth of Jesus was selected based on the birth of Horus, but the New Testament does not include any reference to the date or season of the birth of Jesus. The earliest known source recognizing the 25th of December as the date of birth of Jesus is by Hippolytus of Rome, written around the beginning of the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring equinox. Hippolytus placed the equinox on March 25 and then added 9 months to get December 25, thus establishing the date for festivals. The Roman Chronography of 354 then included an early reference to the celebration of a Nativity feast in December, as of the fourth century.

Porter states that Massey's serious historical errors often render his works nonsensical, e.g. Massey states that the biblical references to Herod the Great were based on the myth of "Herrut" the evil hydra serpent, while the existence of Herod the Great can be well established without reliance on Christian sources.

Harpur has noted that Kuhn had expected his ideas to have a Darwin-like impact on religious studies, but that has not happened and Kuhn's concepts are generally ignored or rejected. Porter criticizes Kuhn's work based on various errors such as confusing the dates of the composition of the Mishnah and the Babylonian Talmud when drawing conclusions. Porter also criticizes Harpur's views (which are often based on Kuhn) for their lack of rigor and consistency.

Resurrection analogies

The Egyptians had specific harvesting rituals that related the rising and receding waters of the Nile river and the farming cycle to the death and resurrection of Osiris. The cutting down of barley and wheat was related to the death of Osiris, while the sprouting of shoots was thought to be based on the power of Osiris to resurrect the farmland.

Osiris-beds were common in ancient Egypt and were clay representations of a dead Osiris which when watered would sprout shoots in the spring, thus representing his power to control nature even after his death.

Christ myth theory proponent G. A. Wells still sees an analogy with the resurrection of Jesus in the Pauline epistles and Osiris, in that Osiris dies and is mourned on the first day and that his resurrection is celebrated on the third day with the joyful cry "Osiris has been found". However, since changing his position on the historicity of Jesus, Wells now states that the personage mentioned in the Q source is not all mythical and is "not to be identified with the dying and rising Christ of the early epistles". David J. MacLeod states that the Osiris legend is very different from the resurrection of Jesus in that "Osiris did not rise; he ruled in the abode of the dead."

Invocation of Saturn

I invoke the power of Saturn
The Great Dark Mother and Old Father Time
I bring the gift of boundaries
But you must learn
How to discern
Where to cross or draw the line

As the Divine Feminine
Birthing potential into form
I bring to light wisdom hidden
In the shadow of my womb

Through experience and understanding
As you climb the Tree of Life
Remain receptive and open
To the unknown and the unfolding
But speak up for your personal values and rights

As the Divine Masculine
Providing structure and meaning
Within cycles ever-turning
I give life rhyme and reason
I pressure you to stay focused
To fulfill your life’s true mission
Chaos would reign
With no rules to the game
Chronology and synchronicity offer direction

Life is a delicate balance
Between free will and fate
Boundaries can be either
Barriers or gates
Know Thyself to realize
When to dissolve and coagulate

Boundaries can serve for protection
Or become a self-imposed prison
Sometimes it is only illusion
Where it seems there is bondage and restriction
You can achieve freedom at any moment
If you only make the decision

I AM SATURN

HAIL AND WELCOME!

Lecture on Venus

Venus is the most alluring of the planets. Seen as both a morning and evening star, no heavenly body, save the Sun and Moon, has captured the attention of humanity as this bright star has. Many gods and goddesses have been associated with it, from the goddesses Inanna and Ishtar, to the fallen angel Lucifer. Friday is the day in harmony with Venusian energies, named after the Norse goddess Freya, creating Freya’s day. But the planet itself is named after the goddess of love, known to the Greeks as Aphrodite.

Aphrodite is most popularly known as the patron of love and romance, but she is also the goddess of sensuality, pleasure, beauty and relaxation. In some of the myths, she was known for her anger, jealousy and infidelity as well. Although considered one of the twelve Olympians, the main gods of the Greeks, she is most likely a much older goddess, since her birth in the creation tales had to be fit into the myths of the classical Greeks. Her first stories don’t seem to fit. Although some say she is a daughter of Zeus, most myths give a different tale. When Chronos castrated his father, the sky god Uranus, his genitals fell into the ocean. The ocean foamed and frothed, until Venus burst forth from the waves, making her a primal ocean goddess, without real parents. When she reached the shore, flowers bloomed at her feet, following her wherever she went. So she carries the associations of an Earth goddess too. Later she became the champion of love and romance.

Venus captures our attention because it is the brightest of the stars. The planet reflects so much light because of the planets thick atmosphere. Venus has a continuous “green house” effect. Most solar energy gets reflected off this atmosphere, creating the dazzling light, and giving Venus its association with gems and jewels. The energy that does penetrate gets trapped inside, creating a blistering atmosphere that cannot support life as we know it. The energy of Venus, of personal love, is reflected in these characteristics. Our love and emotions can often be dazzling at first glance, but cloudy and obscured when looked at closely. Our memories concerning love are hazy, unlike the memories of Mercury, which lacks an atmosphere that can haze perception. Passion and romance are hot and steamy, and we can feel our blood boil when in a passionate love affair. Once we “get” love, we often don’t want to give it up. We seek to trap and bind it.

Venus is the only planet with a day, or rotation on its axis, longer than its year. Venus’ day is equivalent to 243 earth days while its year, or one complete orbit around the Sun, is only 225 earth days. This is why the goddess is associated with leisure and luxury, and in some people’s minds, laziness and inactivity. Venus takes time to enjoy every second. Venus is sensual. Venus goes its own way, rotating in the opposite direction of all the other planets. The goddess is, after all, free and independent. The Sun rises on her western horizon, always starting with a sense of completion, at least from the Earth person’s view point. Since the Sun sets on the earthly western horizon, we associate it with endings and completion. Many magical traditions also place the element of water at the west, for the endings, and the mysteries of the otherworlds, beyond the ocean. Water is the element of love and healing. The powers of Venus are the pleasures at the end of the day. Venus moves toward completion rather than fresh starts and initiation. Initiation is handled by Venus’ lover, Mars. The goddess of love’s emphasis on the west is the land of endings, sunsets and mysteries.

This planet currently rules two zodiac signs, though many debate her rulership. Taurus and Libra both share Venus. In Taurus, she is the goddess of the earth, physical pleasure, the body, and sensuality. Taurus is associated with resources and money, and Venus can be used in such magic. She attracts, and then holds onto her resources, like the heat of the planet. In Libra, she is the goddess of art, relationship, justice and balance. She is in an air sign, keen on communication between partners and intellectual appreciation of the finer things in life. Both signs have been associated with the color green, as well as pink, making those strong ritual colors to work with when invoking Venus the goddess, or Venus the planet. Copper, which turns green when tarnished, along with many green and blue stones that have copper compounds in them, such as turquoise, azurite and malachite, resonate with Venus. Emerald, however, is the stone most often associated with Venus.

Magic in the sphere of Venus is love and emotion magic. Do spells to find a lover, long term or short term. Do spells to find self love and healing. Venus rules the heart chakra and throat chakra, letting us speak our feelings with clarity and strength. Call on it to heal a broken heart as well. Use it to heal and strengthen relationships of all kinds, because to this goddess, all relationships, friends and family, are based on love.

The power of attraction is the power of Venus. Lodestone, the natural magnetic stone, is a mineral of Venus. Venus attracts things of value to you. If you value money, it will attract that in your magick. If you value the things that money can buy, sensual or intellectual pleasures, Venus will attract that. If you value romance, beauty, or anything at all, Venus can attract it.

Venus energy is great for quick money magic. Green is the color of Venus, the color of money and the color of most vegetation. It is the symbol on this planet for stored solar energy, stored potential. All barter and trade was based on the value of stored energy, be it in grain, animals, or the solar energy reflected in gold. That is why we associate money with green. Also, we cannot have prosperity in our life if we do not love ourselves and feel worthy of prosperity.

Venus energy helps us complete any project. It gives us the final push to complete long standing goals and things that have been shelved. Venus brings us to the reward at the end of the journey, where we can enjoy the fruits of our labor.

When you want to call upon the energies of Venus, do so when this energy is strong. Most people use the power of Venus to attract, so doing work on a waxing Moon, to attract things to you is helpful. But at times, we wish to banish with this energy, such as banishing the pain of a broken heart, so the waning Moon would be more appropriate. All Venusian magick is powerful on Fridays, the day of Venus, and the first hour after sunrise is the first hour of Venus. Also when the Moon or Sun is in the sign of Taurus or Libra is powerful Venus time.

We have a planetary Venus cycle and a personal Venus cycle. During this time, it is great to rest and relax, enjoy the finer things in life, play music, tell stories and make art. It’s a time for inner expression. For the planetary cycle, it is typically Dec 6 to Jan 26. I always thought that strange because I associate Venus with the goddess of flowers its zodiac signs with spring and fall, but the winter is a perfect time to rest and relax. Our personal Venus period starts 260 days after our birthday, and lasts approximately 52 days.

When designing Venus rituals, make them sensual and fun. Don’t try to be too serious. Laughter can be a great form of magic. Invoke all the senses. Use foods, drinks, scents, sounds and textures that are pleasing to you. That will invoke the Venus energy. You can also use the following correspondences in your rituals.

• MINERALS:Amber, Aventurine, Azurite, Calcite, Blue Calcite, Green Calcite, Pink Calcite, Cat’s Eye, Chrysocolla, Chysoprase, Emerald, Hexagonite, Jade, Green Jasper, Kunzite, Kyanite, Lapis Lazuli, Loadstone, Malachite, Peridot, Rose Quartz, Rhodochrosite, Rhodonite, Serpentine, Blue Sodalite, Tourmaline, Turquoise, Variscite
• PLANTS: Adam and Eve Root, African Violet, Alder, Alfalfa, Almond, Angelica, Apple, Apricot, Ash, Avocado, Balm of Gilead, Banana, Bay, Bedstraw, Bean, Beets, Bergamot, Bleeding Heart, Blood Root, Boneset, Catnip, Celery, Cherry, Chickpea, Red Clover, Cocoa, Coltsfoot, Columbine, Cosmos, Crocus, Cuckoo-Flower, Cumin, Cypress, Daffodil, Daisies, Damiana, Dittany, Elder, Fern, Foxglove, Gardenia, Geranium, Goldenrod, Goldenseal, Gooseberry, Heart’s Ease, Heather, Hibiscus, Hollyhocks, Horehound, Hyacinth, Hydrangeas, Jade Tree, Jasmine, Jewelweed, Juniper, Kava-Kava, Ladies’ Mantle, Lemon, Lemon Balm, Lemon Verbena, Lentil, Lily of the Valley, Lime, Lovage, Lungwort, Marshmallow, Meadowsweet, Moneywort, Motherwort, Orchid, Oregano, Orris Root, Pansy, Parsley, Passion Flower, Passion Fruit, Pear, Pennyroyal, Peony, Peppermint, Periwinkle, Plum, Poppy, Primrose, Radish, Ragweed, Raspberry, Rice, Rose, Sarsaparilla, Self-Heal, Silverweed, Slippery Elm, Spearmint, Star Anise, Strawberry, Sweet pea, Sycamore, Tansy, Thyme, Tulips, Vanilla, Vervain, Vetivert, Violet, Walnut, Watermelon, Wheat, Woodruff, Yarrow

(Be sure to consult a reputable medical herbal before using any herbs topically or internally.)

Besides this list, the aforementioned copper, even copper pennies are great for ritual, as well as sugar and honey. Sweetness is the power of Venus. Experiment. Be daring. Create. Walk with Venus.

Lecture on Mars

Mars is one of the most misunderstood of the planets, astrologically and magically. Many cite it as the planet of anger, frustration, war and destruction. And it can be, but if you focus solely on those descriptions, you miss the true thread of what Mars is, will. Mars energy is the power of personal will. It is the energy that encourages you to do. What you do with the energy is entirely up to you. It’s much like the opposite of its sister/lover planet Venus. Venus wants to attract and let things happen. Mars wants to go out and make things happen. Mars begins. Mars initiates. Whenever you apply your will to make something happen, you are using Mars energy.

Will energy is particularly powerful for witches, pagans and magicians who do spell work, for it is our connection to will power that fuels our magic. Although through our rituals, spells and meditations we seek to merge our will with higher will to create change, we must first do something. We must take the first action. That is your personal will, your Mars energy. When your will is blocked in some way, typical human reaction is to get frustrated. Some will use that frustration time to reflect on the situation and ask to connect to higher will, to understand why this block has occurred. Most of us, however, use our frustration to transform our will into anger, to destroy the obstacles in front of us. Although that can be an appropriate action in some situations, it is not a very conscious action. It is a reaction. Mars becomes destructive and war-like when it is not used consciously through actions, but when its used in reactions. When used consciously, Mars is the power of victory.

The planet itself gives us clues to its magical and personal powers. The planet can be seen easily from Earth, reflecting a red light due to the reddish pigment of the iron oxide deposits on the surface. Iron is traditionally known as the metal of the warrior, and the ancients used iron as the magical metal of Mars. Although used for weapons, magically iron powder and iron nails are used in protection spells, to ground unwanted harmful energy, like a lightning rod grounds electricity. The warrior can be the defender, and not the invader.

Mars has very thin atmosphere, so it doesn’t trap energy like Venus does. It lets go. It doesn’t become attached to what has happened in the past. This is true even on the surface of Mars. It is covered with many craters and rocky formation. The dayside can reach a very high temperature, while the night side becomes very cool, as its rotation is slightly longer than Earth’s rotation, approximately 25 earth hours. Mars must release the energy it absorbs to produce change. What little atmosphere exits creates strong windstorms that constantly scar and reshape the surface of the planet. Although you can think of these as war scars, I prefer to look at these storms as symbolic of the ability to change and adapt. Mars is all about putting your will into action to create change. The red color and high day temperature also links Mars to the element of fire. Fire is the element of our energy – as expressed as passion, intensity, career, sexuality and even spirituality. Wherever we put our energy is where we will have to use our Mars. Mars energy can be aggressive, but does not have to be violent. The fire energy of Mars can be found in our bodies. Some traditions place Mars at the root chakra, for physical survival, sexual pleasure and intense energy. Others place it as the Solar Plexus, the furnace of the energy body. I would say that Mars energy can be found in both of those chakras.

Water is the symbol of emotion, and what little water exists on Mars is most likely frozen. Symbolically, Mars does not get weight downed in the emotions. They are almost suspended. The fire elemental energy reign

Astrologically, Mars is associated with Aries. Aries is the sign of the ram, the leader and warrior who must charge forward. Aries learns to overcome fear through this fiery energy. Before the discovery of Pluto, Mars was also associated with Scorpio, the sign of strong emotional and psychic power, investigation and desire.

The archetype of Mars can be the warrior, as aggressor or as protector. Warriors can be both. In many traditions of mysticism, from Mexican shamanism to Eastern disciplines, the mystic is considered a spiritual warrior. Mars’ sacred day is Tuesday, called Tyr’s Day after the Norse god Tyr. Tyr is a god of war, but also of justice and self-sacrifice. He gave his hand in sacrifice to the wolf monster threatening the Norse gods. With his sacrifice, the other gods were able to chain the creature. The most famous Mars archetype is of course, the Roman god Mars, known as Ares to the Greeks. Although played a villain in both ancient tales and modern television shows, he was seen as a part of creation, as were all the gods, and not a source of evil. Perhaps as a god of war, a source of pain and fear, but not evil. Other war godform survive into the modern world with less of a stigma attached to them. Set and Horus of Egyptian mythology come to mind. Although Set is often now portrayed as a god of evil, he originally was a god of destruction and the desert storm winds. Unlike the other gods of Egypt, and the Egyptians of the time, he was portrayed as having red hair. His nephew Horus, although with many solar attributes, became the avenging son after his father Osiris’ murder, giving him Martian warrior attributes. In Celtic myth, the warrior kings have great Mars attributes. Bran, the giant god has some Mars characteristics, although he is much more a mystical warrior, associated with ravens and prophecy. King Arthur is a more down to Earth warrior king who is called to action to serve the land and kingdom. In many of the Celtic traditions, not only are the gods and kings warriors, but the goddesses and queens are warriors. In fact, in some myths, the best male warriors actually got their training from the goddesses and warrior women. Martian energy is not exclusive to males.

Magically, you can call upon Mars energy for almost anything. It is a very active energy, so when you need to do something quietly and gently, it is not the best power. Magic to succeed in competition, make a bold change, increase sex drive, overcome an obstacle, grant protection, increase physical movement, motivate exercise, increase fire energy and bring strength are all great Mars goals. Use Mars energy to create and build with the waxing Moon and use it to remove and destroy obstacles in the waning Moon.

To draw Mars energy in ritual, use the color red, through candles, altar clothes and clothing to attract the vibration. Do it on a Tuesday, and or if you know how to calculate planetary hours (I suggest Maria Simm’s A Time for Magick, published by Llewellyn for more information) perform it in the hour of Mars on whatever day your ritual occurs. You can also do strong Mars magick when the Moon or Sun is in Aries. Look this information up on an astrological calendar. Your own personal Mars period begins 105 days after your birthday and lasts for 52 days. The world’s Mars period beings July 3 and goes until August 23. Both are times for physical health and empowerment, action and activity. It’s best to avoid new legal deals at this time.

You can also use the following minerals and plants in your magical spells and charms. Many people are often surprised by what is ruled by Mars. Herbs and stone they feel are healing or feminine often come under this rulership, demonstrating how fire and will can be very healing energies, not exclusive to the realms of war.

• Minerals: Agate, Apache Tear, Red Aventurine, Bloodstone, Carnelian, Diamond, Flint, Garnet, Hematite, Red Jasper, Lava, Mochi Balls ©, Onyx, Fire Opal, Pipestone, Rhodochrosite, Rhodonite, Ruby, Sard, Sardonyx, Watermelon Tourmaline
• Herbs: Acacia, Adam and Eve Root, Agrimony, All-Heal, Allspice, Barberry, Bearberry, Beech, Beets, Benzoin, Betony, Blackberry, Bleeding Heart, Blood Root, Briony, Broom, Carrots, Cashew, Cayenne, Cherry, Chili Pepper, Chives, Coriander, Curry, Damiana, Deerstongue, Dragon’s Blood, Male Fern, Fireweed, Flax, Galangal Root, Garlic, Geranium, Ginger, Hawthorn, Hemlock, High John the Conqueror Root, Holly, Honeysuckle, Horseradish, Houndstongue, Hyssop, Juniper Berries, Leeks, Low John Root, Mandrake, Marjoram, Masterwort, Mastic, Mustard Seeds, Nettles, Red Oak, Onion, Orchid, Paprika, Pear, Red Pepper, Peppercorn, Pine, Poppy, Radish, Ragweed, Raspberry, Rhubarb, Rose, Wild Rose, Rue, Sassafras, Snapdragon, Spearmint, Spinach, Stone Root, Strawberry, Sweet Briar, Sweet Pea, Tarragon, Thistle, Blessed Thistle, Thorn, Tobacco, Tomato, Vanilla, Woodruff, Wormwood, Yerba Mate

(Be sure to consult a reputable medical herbal before using any herbs topically or internally.)

If you want to do a simple ritual to connect to your Mars energy, get a red candle and with a pin, draw the symbol of mars, a circle with an arrow pointing off to your right, like the classical symbol of a man. Light the candle on a Tuesday, and meditate by staring into the flame. If you have an appropriate Mars incense, such as Dragon’s Blood, light it. Ask your higher power to grant you a vision of how you should be applying your will, your power, in accordance with divine will. Close your eyes, and let the images come to you. Let your soul, your inner fire be guided by the true light of divine will, and not of your ego. When done, thank the power of the divine and the power of Mars and go out into the world. Create. Change. Be victorious!