Lecture: Zoroastrianism Yasna

Yasna is the Avestan language name of Zoroastrianism's principal act of worship, and it is also the name of the primary liturgical collection of Avesta texts, recited during that yasna ceremony.

The function of the yasna ceremony is, very roughly described, to strengthen the orderly spiritual and material creations of Ahura Mazda against the assault of the destructive forces of Angra Mainyu. The yasna service, that is, the recitation of the Yasna texts, culminates in the apæ zaothra, the "offering to the waters." The ceremony may also be extended by recitation of the Visperad and Vendidad texts. A normal yasna ceremony, without extensions, takes about two hours when it is recited by an experienced priest.

The Yasna texts constitute 72 chapters altogether, composed at different times and by different authors. The middle chapters include of the (linguistically) oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon. These very ancient texts, in the very archaic and linguistically difficult Old Avestan language, include the four most sacred Zoroastrian prayers, and also 17 chapters comprising the five Gathas, hymns that are considered to have been composed by Zoroaster himself. Several sections of the Yasna include exegetical comments. Yasna chapter and verse pointers are traditionally abbreviated with Y.

The Avestan language word yasna literally means 'oblation' or 'worship'. The word is linguistically related to (but not the functional equivalent of) Vedic Sanskrit yajna. Unlike Sanskrit yajna, which refers to a class of rituals, Zoroastrian yasna is a particular liturgy and ritual, and the ritual has "to do with water rather than fire."

The service

The theological function of the yasna ceremony, and the proper performance of it, is to further asha, that is, the ceremony aims to strengthen that which is right/true (one meaning of asha) in the existence/creation (another meaning of asha) of divine order (yet another meaning of asha). The Encyclopedia Iranica summarizes the aim of the yasna ceremony as "the maintenance of the cosmic integrity of the good creation of Ahura Mazdā." Zoroastrianism's cosmological/eschatological perception of the purpose of humankind is to strengthen the orderly spiritual and material creations of Mazda against the assault of the destructive forces of Angra Mainyu. In that conflict, theologically speaking, mankind's primary weapon is the yasna ceremony, which is understood to have a direct, immediate effect: "[f]ar from being a symbolic act, the proper performance of the yasna is what prevents the cosmos from falling into chaos." The culminating act of the yasna ceremony is the Ab-Zohr, the "strengthening of the waters".

The Yasna service, that is, the recitation of the Yasna texts, culminates in the Ab-Zohr, the "offering to waters". The Yasna ceremony may be extended by recitation of the Visperadand Vendidad.

A well-trained priest is able to recite the entire Yasna in about two hours. With extensions, it takes about an hour longer. In its normal form, the Yasna ceremony is only to be performed in the morning.

The liturgy
Structure and organization

The texts of the Yasna are organized into 72 chapters, known as hads or has (from Avestan ha'iti, 'cut'). The 72 threads of the Zoroastrian Kusti the sacred girdle worn around the waist - represent the 72 chapters of the Yasna. From a literary point of view, the 72 chapters consist of two nested inner cores, and an outer envelope. The outer chapters/sections (the "envelope") are in the Younger Avestan language. The middle 27 chapters include the (linguistically) oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon. The inner chapters/sections (excepting chapters 42.1-4,52.5-8) are in the more archaic Old Avestan language, with the four sacred formulae bracketing the innermost core. This innermost core includes the 17 chapters of the Gathas, the oldest and most sacred texts of the Zoroastrian canon. Yasna 1-27.12 Yasna 27.13-27.15: three of the four of the most sacred Zoroastrian prayers Yasna 28-34: Gatha 1 Yasna 35-41: the "seven-chapter Yasna" Yasna 43-51,53: Gathas 2-5 (chapters 43-46, 47-50, 51 and 53) Yasna 54.1: fourth of four of the most sacred Zoroastrian prayers Yasna 54.2-72 From a ritual point of view, the liturgy can be broken into 4 major sections, each having its own internal prelude: Chapter 1-12: Invitation of the divinities to the worship Chapter 13-59: The Staota Yesniia Chapter 60-69: The culmination of the Yasna (the "Ab-Zohr"), accompanied by intense ritual activity. Chapter 70-72: Conclusion and thanks to the divinities for attending Some sections of the Yasna occur more than once. For instance, Yasna 5 is repeated as Yasna 37, and Yasna 63 consists of passages from Yasna 15.2, 66.2 and 38.3. The ability to recite the Yasna from memory is one of the prerequisites for Zoroastrian priesthood.

Content summaries

• Yasna 1 opens with the praise of Ahura Mazda, enumerating his divine titles as the Creator, "radiant, glorious, the greatest, the best, the most beautiful, the most firm, the most wise, of the most perfect form, the highest in righteousness, possessed of great joy, creator, fashioner, nourisher, and the Most Holy Spirit." (Dhalla, 1936:155). Yasna 1 then enumerates the divinities, inviting them to the service.
• Yasna 2, the Barsom Yasht, presents libation and the barsom (a bundle of 23 twigs bound together, symbolizing sanctity) to the invited divinities. Yasna 2-4 complement Yasna 1. Most verses in Yasna 2-3 begin with the formula ayese yeshti …, "by means of this sacrifice, I call …", followed by the name of the divinity being invoked.
• Yasna 3-8 known collectively as the Sarosh dron, presents other offerings (zaothra). Yasna 3 draws the attention of the divinities invoked in Yasna 1, and in Yasna 4, the offerings are consecrated to the divinities. Yasna 5 is repeated in Yasna 37. Yasna 6 is almost identical to the first 10 verses of Yasna 17.
• Yasna 9-11 is the Hom Yasht, a collection of accolades to the Haoma plant and its divinity.
• Yasna 12 constitutes the Fravarane, the Zoroastrian creed and declaration of faith. It is in "Artificial" Gathic Avestan, that is, it is stylistically and linguistically aligned with the language of the Gathas, but imperfectly. The last strophe of verse 7 as well as all of verses 8 and 9 are incorporated into the Kusti ritual.
• Yasna 13-18 are comparable to Yasna 1-8 in that they too are a collection of invocations to the divinities. Chapters 14-18 serve as an introduction to the Staota Yesniia of Yasna19-59. The first 10 verses of Yasna 17, "to the fires, waters, plants", is almost identical to Yasna 6.
• Yasna 19-21, the Bhagan Yasht, are commentaries on the three 'high prayers' of Yasna 28-53.
• Yasna 22-26 is another set of invocations to the divinities.
• Yasna 27 has the prayers referred to by Yasna 19-21. These are:
  • The Ahuna Vairya invocation (also known as the Yatha Ahu Vairyo), the most sacred of all Zoroastrian prayers.
  • The Ashem Vohu
  • The Yenghe hatam
• 
  

  Yasna 28.1, Ahunavaiti Gatha (Bodleian MS J2)
  Yasna 28-53 include the (linguistically) oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon. 17 of the 26 chapters make up the Gathas, the most sacred hymns of Zoroastrianism and thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself. The Gathas are in verse. These are structurally interrupted by a) the Yasna Haptanghaiti ("seven-chapter Yasna", #35-41), which is as old as the Gathas but in prose, b) two short chapters (#42 and #52) that are not as old as the Gathas and Yasna Haptanghaiti.
  • Yasna 28-34: Ahunavaiti Gatha
  • Yasna 35-41: Yasna Haptanghaiti, the "seven-chapter Yasna", also in Gathic Avestan but in prose.
  • Yasna 42: a 4 verse chapter invoking the elements.
  • Yasna 43-46: Ushtavait Gatha
  • Yasna 47-50: Spenta Mainyu Gatha
  • Yasna 51: Vohu Khshathra Gatha
  • Yasna 52: an 8 verse hymn to Ashi. Verses 52.5 - 52.8, in Younger Avestan, are a duplicate of Yasna 8.5 - 8.8.
  • Yasna 53: Vahishto Ishti Gatha
• Yasna 54 has the text of the a airiiema ishiio, a prayer referred to in Yasna 27.
• Yasna 55 is a praise to the Gathas and the Staota Yesniia.
• Yasna 56 is again an invocation to the divinities, appealing for their attention.
• Yasna 57 is the Sarosh Yasht, the hymn to the divinity of religious discipline. It is closely related to, and appears to have sections borrowed from Yasht 10, the hymn to Mithra.
• Yasna 58 is again a "hidden" Yasht, here to the genius of prayer (cf. Dahman).
• Yasna 59 is a repetition of the sections from Yasna 17 and 26.
• Yasna 60 is blessing upon the house of the ashavan ('just' or 'true' man). Yasna 60.2-7 constitute the Dahma Afriti invocation, also known as the Afrinagan Dahman.
• Yasna 61 praises the anti-demonic powers imbued in the Afrinagan Dahman, Yenghe hatam and the three principal prayers of Yasna 27.
• Yasna 62 constitutes the Ataksh Nyashes, prayers to fire and its divinity.
• Yasna 63-69 constitute the prayers that accompany the Ab-Zohr, "offering to water".
• Yasna 70-72 are again a set of invocations to the divinities.

Lecture: The History of Zoroastrianism Ahura Mazda

Atar (fire), a primary symbol of Zoroastrianism

Ahura Mazda (/əˈhʊrə ˈmæzdə/; also known as Ohrmazd, Ahuramazda, Hourmazd, Hormazd, Harzoo and Hurmuz) is the Avestan name for the creator and sole God of Zoroastrianism, the old Iranian religion that spread across the Middle East predating Judaism, before ultimately being relegated to small minorities after the Muslim conquest of Iran. Ahura Mazda is described as the highest spirit of worship in Zoroastrianism, along with being the first and most frequently invoked spirit in the Yasna. The literal meaning of the word Ahura is "mighty" or "lord", and Mazda is "wisdom".

Ahura Mazda first appeared in the Achaemenid period (c. 550 – 330 BCE) under Darius I's Behistun Inscription. Until Artaxerxes II(405–04 to 359–58 BCE), Ahura Mazda was worshipped and invoked alone. With Artaxerxes II, Ahura Mazda was invoked in a triad, with Mithra and Anahita. In the Achaemenid period, there are no representations of Ahura Mazda other than the custom for every emperor to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses, to invite Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. Images of Ahura Mazda began in the Parthian period, but were stopped and replaced with stone carved figures in the Sassanid period.

Nomenclature

"Mazda", or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflects Proto-Iranian *Mazdāh (a feminine noun). It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhās, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European *mn̩sdʰeh₁, literally meaning "placing (*dʰeh₁) one's mind (*mn̩-s)", hence "wise".

The name was rendered as Ahuramazda (Old Persian) during the Achaemenid era, Hormazd during the Parthian era, and Ohrmazdwas used during the Sassanian era.

The name may be attested on cuneiform tablets of Assyrian Assurbanipal, in the form Assara Mazaš, though this interpretation is very controversial.

Representation of Ahura Mazda

Characteristics

Even though Ahura Mazda was a spirit in the Old Iranian religion, he had not yet been given the title of "uncreated spirit". This title was given by Zoroaster, who proclaimed Ahura Mazda as the uncreated spirit, wholely wise, benevolent and good, as well as the creatorand upholder of Asha ("truth").

Zoroaster's revelation

At the age of 30, Zoroaster received a revelation: while fetching water at dawn for a sacred ritual, he saw the shining figure of the yazata, Vohu Manah, who led Zoroaster to the presence of Ahura Mazda, where he was taught the cardinal principles of the "Good Religion" later known as Zoroastrianism. As a result of this vision, Zoroaster felt that he was chosen to spread and preach the religion. He stated that this source of all goodness was the only Ahura worthy of the highest worship. He further stated that Ahura Mazda created spirits known as yazatas to aid him, who also merited devotion. Zoroaster proclaimed that all of the Iranian daevas were bad spirits and deserved no worship. These "bad" spirits were created by Angra Mainyu, the hostile and evil spirit. The existence of Angra Mainyu was the source of all sin and misery in the universe. Zoroaster claimed that Ahura Mazda was not an omnipotent God, but used the aid of humans in the cosmic struggle against Angra Mainyu. Nonetheless, Ahura Mazda is Angra Mainyu's superior, not his equal. Angra Mainyu and his daevas (destroyers), which attempt to attract humans away from the path of righteousness (asha), would eventually be destroyed.

History

Achaemenid Empire

The Behistun Inscription contains many references to Ahura Mazda.

Whether the Achaemenids were Zoroastrians is a matter of much debate. However, it is known that the Achaemenids were worshipers of Ahura Mazda. The representation and invocation of Ahura Mazda can be seen on royal inscriptions written by Achaemenid kings. The most notable of all the inscriptions is the Behistun Inscription written by Darius I which contains many references to Ahura Mazda. An inscription written in Greek was found in a late Achaemenid temple at Persepolis which invoked Ahura Mazda and two other spirits, most likely Mithra and Anahita. On the Elamite Persepolis Fortification Tablet 377, Ahura Mazda is invoked along with Mithra and Voruna (Apam Napat, probably vedic Varuna, "water-god"). Artaxerxes III makes this invocation to the three spirits again in his reign.

The early Achaemind period contained no representation of Ahura Mazda. The winged symbol with a male figure who was formerly regarded by European scholars as Ahura Mazda has been shown to represent the royal xvarənah, the personification of royal power and glory. However, it was customary for every emperor from Cyrus until Darius III to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses as a place for Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. The use of images of Ahura Mazda began in the western satraps of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 5th century BCE. Under Artaxerxes II, the first literary reference as well as a statue of Ahura Mazda was built by a Persian governor of Lydia in 365 BCE.

Parthian Empire

It is known that the reverence for Ahura Mazda, as well as Anahita and Mithra continued with the same traditions during this period. The worship of Ahura Mazda with symbolic images is noticed, but it stopped with the beginning of the Sassanid period. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda remained symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback which is found in Sassanian investiture.

Sassanid Empire

Ahura Mazda (on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Naqsh-e Rustam, 3rd century CE)

Investiture of Sassanid emperor Shapur II (center) with Mithra (left) and Ahura Mazda (right) at Taq-e Bostan, Iran.

Investiture scene: Anahita on the left as the patron yazata of the Sassanian dynasty behind Emperor Khosrau Parviz with Ahura Mazda presenting the diadem of sovereignty on the right. Taq-e Bostan, Iran.

During the Sassanid Empire, a heretical form of Zoroastrianism, termed Zurvanism, emerged. It gained adherents throughout the Sassanid Empire, most notably the royal lineage of Sassanian emperors. Under the reign of Shapur I, Zurvanism spread and became a widespread cult. Zurvanism revokes Zoroaster's original message of Ahura Mazda as the uncreated spirit, and the "uncreated creator" of all, and reduces him to a created spirit, one of two twin sons of Zurvan, their father and the primary spirit. Zurvanism also makes Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu of equal strength and only contrasting spirits.

Other than Zurvanism, the Sassanian kings demonstrated their devotion to Ahura Mazda in other fashions. Five kings took the name Hormizd and Bahram II created the title of "Ohrmazd-mowbad" which was continued after the fall of the Sassanid Empireand through the Islamic times. All devotional acts in Zoroastrianism originating from the Sassanian period begin with homage to Ahura Mazda. The five Gāhs begin with the declaration in Middle Persian, that "Ohrmazd is Lord" and incorporate the Gathicverse "Whom, Mazda hast thou appointed my protector". Zoroastrian prayers are to be said in the presence of light, either in the form of fire or the sun. In the Iranian dialects of Yidḡa and Munǰī, the sun is still called "ormozd".

Present-day Zoroastrianism

In 1884, Martin Haug proposed a new interpretation of Yasna 30.3 that subsequently influenced Zoroastrian doctrine to a significant extent. According to Haug's interpretation, the "twin spirits" of 30.3 were Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu, the former being literally the "Destructive Spirit" and the latter being the "Bounteous Spirit" (of Mazda). Further, in Haug's scheme, Angra Mainyu was now not Ahura Mazda's binary opposite, but—like Spenta Mainyu—an emanation of Him. Haug also interpreted the concept of a free will of Yasna 45.9 as an accommodation to explain where Angra Mainyu came from since Ahura Mazda created only good. The free will made it possible for Angra Mainyu to choose to be evil. Although these latter conclusions were not substantiated by Zoroastrian tradition, at the time Haug's interpretation was gratefully accepted by the Parsis of Bombay since it provided a defense against Christian missionary rhetoric, particularly the attacks on the Zoroastrian idea of an uncreated Evil that was as uncreated as God was. Following Haug, the Bombay Parsis began to defend themselves in the English-language press, the argument being that Angra Mainyu was not Mazda's binary opposite, but his subordinate, who—as in Zurvanism also—chose to be evil. Consequently, Haug's theories were disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, also in the West, where they appeared to be corroborating Haug. Reinforcing themselves, Haug's ideas came to be iterated so often that they are today almost universally accepted as doctrine.

In other religions

Some scholars (Kuiper. IIJ I, 1957; Zimmer. Münchner Studien 1984:187–215) believe that Ahura Mazda originates from *vouruna-mitra, or Vedic Varuna (and Mitra). According to William W Malandra both Varuna (in Vedic period) and Ahura Mazda (in old Iranian religion) represented same Indo-Iranian concept of a supreme "wise, all-knowing lord".

In Manichaeism, the name Ohrmazd Bay ("god Ahura Mazda") was used for the primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā, the "original man" and emanation of the Father of Greatness (in Manicheism called Zurvan) through whom after he sacrificed himself to defend the world of light was consumed by the forces of darkness. Although Ormuzd is freed from the world of darkness his "sons", often called his garments or weapons, remain. His sons, later known as the World Soul after a series of events will for the most part escape from matter and return again to the world of light where they came from. Manicheans often identified many of Mani's cosmological figures with Zoroastrian ones. This may be in part because Mani was born in the greatly Zoroastrian Parthian Empire.

In Sogdian Buddhism, Xwrmztʼ (Sogdian was written without a consistent representation of vowels) was the name used in place of Ahura Mazda. Via contacts with Turkic peoples like the Uyghurs, this Sogdian name came to the Mongols, who still name this deity Qormusta Tengri (Also Qormusta or Qormusda) is now a popular enough deity to appear in many contexts that are not explicitly Buddhist.

The pre-Christian Armenians had Aramazd as an important deity in their pantheon of gods. He is thought to be a syncretic deity, a combination of the autochthonous Urartian figure Ara and the Iranian Ahura Mazda. In modern-day Armenia, Aramazd is a male first name.

101 Names of God

1. yazat ("Worthy of worship.")
2. harvasp-tavãn ("Omnipotent.")
3. harvasp-âgâh ("Omniscient.")
4. harvasp-h'udhâ ("The Lord of all.")
5. abadah ("Without beginning.")
6. awî-añjâm ("Without end.")
7. bûnastah ("The origin of the formation of the world.")
8. frâxtañtah ("Broad end of all.")
9. jamakh ("Greatest cause.")
10. parjahtarah ("More exalted.")
11. tum-afayah ("Most innocent.")
12. abravañt ("Apart from everyone.")
13. parvañdah ("Relation with all.")
14. an-ayâfah ("Incomprehensible by anyone.")
15. ham-ayâfah ("Comprehensible of all.")
16. âdharô ("Most straight, most just.")
17. gîrâ ("Holding fast all.")
18. acim ("Without reason.")
19. cimnâ ("Reason of reasons.")
20. safinâ ("Increaser.")
21. âwzâ ("Causer of increase. The Lord of purity")
22. nâshâ ("Reaching all equally.")
23. parvarâ ("Nourisher.")
24. âyânah ("Protector of the world.")
25. âyaîn-âyânah ("Not of various kinds.")
26. an-âyanah ("Without form.")
27. xraoshît-tum ("Firmest.")
28. mînôtum ("Most invisible.")
29. vâsnâ ("Omnipresent.")
30. harvastum ("All in all.")
31. husipâs ("Worthy of thanks.")
32. har-hemît ("All good-natured.")
33. harnekfareh ("All good auspicious-glory.")
34. beshtarnâ ("Remover of affliction.")
35. tarônîs ("The triumphant.")
36. anaoshak ("Immortal.")
37. farashak ("Fulfiller of wishes.")
38. pazohadhad ("Creator of good nature.")
39. xavâpar ("Beneficient.")
40. awaxshâyâ ("Bestower of Love.")
41. awarzâ ("Excessive bringer.”)
42. â-sitôh ("Undefeated, undistressed.")
43. raxôh ("Independent, carefree.")
44. varûn ("Protector from evil.")
45. a-frîpah ("Undeceivable.")
46. awe-frîftah ("Undeceived.")
47. adhvaî ("Unparalleled.")
48. kãme-rat ("Lord of wishes.")
49. framãn-kãm ("Only wish is His command.")
50. âyextan ("Without body.")
51. â-framôsh ("Unforgetful.")
52. hamârnâ ("Taker of accounts.")
53. snâyâ ("Recognizable, worth recognition.")
54. a-tars ("Fearless.")
55. a-bîsh ("Without affliction or torment.")
56. a-frâzdum ("Most exalted.")
57. hamcûn ("Always uniform.")
58. mînô-stîgar ("Creator of the Universe spiritually.")
59. a-mînôgar ("Creator of much spirituality.")
60. mînô-nahab ("Hidden in Spirits.")
61. âdhar-bâtgar ("Air of fire, i.e. transformer into air.")
62. âdhar-namgar ("Water of fire, i.e. transformer into water.")
63. bât-âdhargar ("Transformer of air into fire.")
64. bât-namgar ("Transformer of air into water.")
65. bât-gelgar ("Transformer of air into earth.")
66. bât-girdtum ("Transformer of air into girad, i.e. gathered.")
67. âdhar-kîbarît-tum ("Transformer of fire into jewels.")
68. bâtgarjâi ("Who creates air in all places.")
69. âwtum ("Creator of most excessive water.")
70. gel-âdhargar ("Transformer of the earth into fire.")
71. gel-vâdhgar ("Transformer of the earth into air.")
72. gel-namgar ("Transformer of the earth into water.")
73. gargar ("Artisan of artisans.")
74. garôgar ("Bestower of wishes.")
75. garâgar ("Creator of man")
76. garâgargar ("Creator of the entire creation")
77. a-garâgar ("Creator of four elements)"
78. a-garâgargar ("Creator of clusters of the stars")
79. a-gûmãn ("Without doubt.")
80. a-jamãn ("Without time.")
81. a-h'uãn ("Without sleep.")
82. âmushthushyâr ("Intelligent.")
83. frashûtanâ ("Eternal protector-increaser.")
84. padhamãnî ("Maintainer of padman, i.e. the golden mean.")
85. pîrôzgar ("Victorious.")
86. h'udhâvañd ("Lord-Master of the Universe.")
87. ahuramazda ("Lord Omniscient.")
88. abarînkuhantavãn ("Of the most exalted rank in the power of maintaining the origin of the creations.")
89. abarîn-nô-tavã ("Of the most exalted rank in the power of rendering the creations anew.")
90. vaspãn ("Attainer to all the creations.")
91. vaspâr ("Bringer of and attainer to all.")
92. h'âwar ("Merciful.")
93. ahû ("Lord of the world.")
94. âwaxsîdâr ("Forgiver.")
95. dâdhâr ("The just creator.")
96. rayomañd ("Full of rae-lustre-splendour.")
97. h'arehmand ("Full of khoreh, i.e. glory.")
98. dâwar ("The just judge.")
99. kerfagar ("Lord of meritorious deeds.")
100. buxtâr ("Redeemer, saviour.")
101. frashôgar ("Restorer through increase of the soul.")